【转】HOW DOES THE CPU PROCESS?

What is CPU?
CPU is a brain of a computer. It called Central Process Unit. CPU fetches and executes instructions. CPU consists of an Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), a control unit, registers and buses.

【转】HOW <wbr>DOES <wbr>THE <wbr>CPU <wbr>PROCESS?

Part of CPU
ALU: is a digital circuit that calculates an arithmetic operation (like an addition, subtraction, etc.) and logic operations (like an Exclusive Or) between two numbers. the ALU is a fundamental building block of the central processing unit of a computer.

Control Unit: controls CPU operations, including ALU operations, the movement of data within the CPU, and the exchange of data and control signals across external interfaces(e.g.,the system bus)
Registers: these components are special memory locations that can be accessed very fast. Three registers are shown: the Instruction Register (IR), the Program Counter (PC), and the Accumulator.
Buses: these components are the information highway for the CPU. Buses are bundles of tiny wires that carry data between components. The three most important buses are the address, the data, and the control buses.

How the CPU works??
A computer have a brain and we call it CPU. Firstly , we describe the CPU and its component. After we look into how does the CPU works and CPU evolutaion in a time. We can show it in this picture;

【转】HOW <wbr>DOES <wbr>THE <wbr>CPU <wbr>PROCESS?

This picture show the components as the CPU too. CPUs improved in the time. The introduction of the microprocessor in the 1970s significantly affected the design and implementation of CPUs. Since the introduction of the first microprocessor (the Intel 4004) in 1970 and the first widely used microprocessor (the Intel 8080) in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods. Mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures, and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward-compatible with their older hardware and software. Combined with the advent and eventual vast success of the now ubiquitous personal computer, the term “CPU” is now applied almost exclusively to microprocessors.

Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards. Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one. The overall smaller CPU size as a result of being implemented on a single die means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance. This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz. Additionally, as the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased, the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU has increased dramatically. This widely observed trend is described by Moore’s law, which has proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity to date.

While the complexity, size, construction, and general form of CPUs have changed drastically over the past sixty years, it is notable that the basic design and function has not changed much at all. Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as von Neumann stored-program machines.

As the aforementioned Moore’s law continues to hold true, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology. Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant. These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer, as well as to expand the usage of parallelism and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von Neumann model. All von Neumann CPU use for operation fetch,decode,execute and writeback.

The first step, fetch, involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory. The location in program memory is determined by a program counter (PC), which stores a number that identifies the current position in the program. In other words, the program counter keeps track of the CPU’s place in the current program. After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction word in terms of memory units. Often the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned. This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures .

【转】HOW <wbr>DOES <wbr>THE <wbr>CPU <wbr>PROCESS?

The instruction that the CPU fetches from memory is used to determine what the CPU is to do. In the decode step, the instruction is broken up into parts that have significance to other portions of the CPU. The way in which the numerical instruction value is interpreted is defined by the CPU’s instruction set architecture (ISA).Often, one group of numbers in the instruction, called the opcode, indicates which operation to perform. The remaining parts of the number usually provide information required for that instruction, such as operands for an addition operation. Such operands may be given as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as a place to locate a value: a register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode. In older designs the portions of the CPU responsible for instruction decoding were unchangeable hardware devices. However, in more abstract and complicated CPUs and ISAs, a microprogram is often used to assist in translating instructions into various configuration signals for the CPU. This microprogram is sometimes rewritable so that it can be modified to change the way the CPU decodes instructions even after it has been manufactured.

After the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed. During this step, various portions of the CPU are connected so they can perform the desired operation. If, for instance, an addition operation was requested, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) will be connected to a set of inputs and a set of outputs. The inputs provide the numbers to be added, and the outputs will contain the final sum. The ALU contains the circuitry to perform simple arithmetic and logical operations on the inputs (like addition and bitwise operations). If the addition operation produces a result too large for the CPU to handle, an arithmetic overflow flag in a flags register may also be set .

The final step, writeback, simply “writes back” the results of the execute step to some form of memory. Very often the results are written to some internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions. In other cases results may be written to slower, but cheaper and larger, main memory. Some types of instructions manipulate the program counter rather than directly produce result data. These are generally called “jumps” and facilitate behavior like loops, conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and functions in programs. Many instructions will also change the state of digits in a “flags” register. These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations. For example, one type of “compare” instruction considers two values and sets a number in the flags register according to which one is greater. This flag could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow.

After the execution of the instruction and writeback of the resulting data, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter. If the completed instruction was a jump, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to, and program execution continues normally. In more complex CPUs than the one described here, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded, and executed simultaneously. This section describes what is generally referred to as the “Classic RISC pipeline” which in fact is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called microcontrollers)

原文地址:http://www.ahmetozkurt.net/comporg/ekonomi/hw2006/meltem/main.html

數據處理入門(下)

第六章 存儲設備的發展過程

6.1 引言

   數據處理系統常需要對海量數據進行存取,因此存儲器對一個數據處理系統來說至關重要。理論上,存儲器的速度越快,數據處理系統的效率越高,但有一個無法迴避的客觀現實,即是存儲器的價格和其速度是成正比的。在CPU中使用了立即存取存儲器,但其價格卻十分昂貴,因此,計算機實際採用的是多種存儲器搭配使用的方法進行工作。

數據處理入門(下)



  這裡將存儲器分為以下兩種類型:
——(設置在CPU內部的)立即存取存儲器;
——(與CPU相連,但不屬於CPU的部件的)輔助存儲器。

6.2 立即存取-存儲器
       最早的計算機是通過導線將將電子管連接到電路中,以起到導電或非導電作用的。適當加一個“觸發”脉衝能引起管子及其電路由一種條件“改變”成另一種條件,直到下一個脉衝的到來再次改變為止。這就是“觸發器”電路。

數據處理入門(下)
數據處理入門(下)
數據處理入門(下)



       觸發器用於寄存器,主立即存取-存儲器中。這種電路耗電大,散熱強,導致電路內的電子管壽命很短成為其最大的缺點。

       其後發展至“延遲線”存儲數據。延遲線是一種帶發聲晶體且注滿水銀的長管子,發聲晶體運送聲波到管子另一端的接收裝置。運用時鐘,可以對時鐘脉衝與接收到的信號脉衝進行比較(AND邏輯操作),如此可得一位信息的譯碼(這是一種排錯的手段)。延遲線傳送數據時,不能在傳輸的過程中進行數據存取,因此,需要非常細緻且符合時間節拍的程序編制,才能讓控制器在預計應該到來的時刻對這些脉衝進行接收和譯碼。若程序佔用時間太長,則會丟失一些脉衝信號;而若數據一到就進行存取,更有可能使存取的時間比其在水銀柱中傳播的時間還長。這卻導致了存儲器在容量和可靠性上出現較大偏差。
  還有一種普遍的磁芯存儲器。這種存儲器由鐵氧化合物材料的小環串在導線上,布網而成。一個小環在經過一個順時針或逆時針的磁化后完成狀態的反復切換,這樣就能表示1或0了。要完成這個操作,需要控制電流有選擇地通過一個或多個磁芯,從而達到改變磁化方向保存數據的目的。磁芯存儲器體積小(如一塊鼠標墊大小的面積上只須幾釐米就能表示近百萬位),耗電少,散熱小,磁化過程十分短暫——幾百萬分之一秒的時間內即可進行數據存取或磁環磁化,因此,它能完成數據的快速存取。另一優點則是因磁芯退磁極緩慢,因而即使斷電,數據仍能完整保存。

數據處理入門(下)

  在一個大型計算機的CPU中,對電路脉衝的傳送需要花一段時間。這段時間事實上妨礙了CPU的操作速度:因為,移動數據的機器週期,比運算器(AU)和控制器(CU)所能操作的週期,前者比後者長。我們希望即使無法將這段多花費的時間除去,也要盡可能將前者保持在後者的最大值範圍內。這便促成了集成電路、芯片的產生。

數據處理入門(下)

  如今,一個完整的CPU具有時鐘,其他一些控制器電路,運算器,一些存儲器。他們集成在一塊指甲大小的硅片/金屬材料上,也就是我們常說的微處理器/芯片。這種設備耗電極少,工作速度很高,可靠且穩定,一旦測試並交付使用,就能連續工作數年。

數據處理入門(下)



  通常除了最小的CPU外,幾乎所有附加的存儲器都需要另外的芯片提供,這就使存儲器的使用更為靈活。如,通用存儲器採用RAM(隨機存取-存儲器,其用法完全和磁芯存儲器一致);CPU中則用ROM(只讀-存儲器,程序指令永久保存,不會被意外毀掉,在計算機生產階段中運用);某些情況下也需要改變ROM的數據,這時可以使用EPROM(可擦可編程-只讀-存儲器,紫外線重寫ROM);等等。

數據處理入門(下)
數據處理入門(下)



6.3 輔助存儲器-串行存取
  輔存可分為兩種,一是可以對數據進行直接存取的存儲器,另一種是對數據進行串行存取的存儲器。
  類似唱片播放時要將唱機的唱頭直接放到音道上進行選擇,盒式磁帶播放時要都放過一邊才能找到所需部份一樣,這種存取方式被稱為串行存取。

數據處理入門(下)

6.4 輔助存儲器-直接存取
  目前大多輔存都以磁力形式來記錄計算機的數據。存儲器所用的介質上有鐵氧化合物塗層,通過對該塗層的磁化來記錄由0和1構成的數據形式。
  直接存取-存儲器中主要的一種是像音樂唱片一樣的平盤形式。該平盤有一個可磁化的面,并有一個跨越在這個面上進行移動的讀寫頭。唱片和計算機磁盤的區別在於它們所記錄的物理形式不同。
  在唱機中,唱片按恒定的速度旋轉,其表面有一道從邊緣開始一直繞到中心的螺旋槽。
  計算機磁盤轉速也恒定,但讀/寫操作時,讀/寫頭是固定不動的,因此,它沒有段杜一條的羅旋軌跡,而是有一個套一個的幾百個同心圓式的磁道。磁盤旋轉磁頭固定時,可讀出某一磁道中的信息;移動磁道需要將磁頭重新驅入進行固定,然後再進行讀寫操作。計算機磁盤驅動器上的磁頭和盤面上浮動的距離較小,磁頭的定位是通過外部一個驅動裝置來完成的。


6.5 計算機磁盤
  計算機磁盤主要有兩種形式——大型、小型。

  大型磁盤常按“磁盤組”形式安裝。每一面都有他們各自所屬的讀寫頭,且這些磁頭是相互關聯地固定著的。

數據處理入門(下)
 圖25 Early experimental non-magnetic Tape Recorder invented by the Volta Associates -Bell & Tainter -i013

  小型磁盤即早先我們稱的軟盤。

數據處理入門(下)

6.6 磁盤容量
       磁盤所能存儲的數據量。直接按實際情況表達即可,關於計量數據的量的方式,見4.1 。

6.7 补充

數據處理入門(下)



  顯微鏡下的金氧半場效電晶體測試用元件。圖中有兩個閘極的接墊(pads)以及三組源極與汲極的接墊。
  金屬—氧化層—半導體結構:

數據處理入門(下)

  幾種常見的MOSFET電路符號,加上接面場效電晶體(Junction Field-Effect Transistor, JFET)一起比較:

數據處理入門(下)
數據處理入門(下)
數據處理入門(下)
數據處理入門(下)
數據處理入門(下)
數據處理入門(下)
數據處理入門(下)
圖41 Computer Memory Hieracy -Various forms of storage, divided according to their distance from the central processing unit. The fundamental components of a general-purpose computer are arithmetic and logic unit, control circuitry, storage space, and input/output devices.

第七部份 輸入/輸出設備
  輸入,即把從外界得到的數據編程計算機能識別的編碼電子脉衝。
  通常這可以分成一步或兩步來做。前者最常見的方法是把一個鍵盤與計算機連接起來,打字錄入數據。後者是將信號發送分為兩步進行,第一步準備,第二步輸 入。準備時涉及到鍵盤,鍵盤可連接到一個磁介質。輸入則是在數據準備之後,利用光敏元件或電磁元件對磁介質、卡片、紙帶或幾張紙進行掃描,使上面的編碼或 標記直接地轉換成電子脉衝。
  類似還有高速紙帶閱讀機,直接輸入設備:電傳打字機、工程師控制台、VDU等。

第八部份 數據的收集及轉換
  把問題轉換為數據,將數據收集起來,提供給機器處理,這是本文自始至終的出發點。這裡先說討論數據的收集。
  把數據收集起來提供給機器,這裡有兩方面,一是人收集數據,另一是由機器進行準備或轉換數據。人這邊的主要問題是數據的收集。
  通常,數據的收集并無法由一個人完成,這就意味著需要在參與收集的人群範圍中達成一定的共識,否則收集無法完成。
  人工的做法常涉及三個步驟:

  • 記錄;
  • 傳送;
  • 轉錄。

  例如一个快递公司的運轉。
  这里面的每一步工作都可能引起新的错误,而且最后一步最易出錯,原因主要是一下兩點:
  數據準備操作員要讀出那些手寫的單據——這些素材有可能不清晰;
  數據準備操作員實際上與數據并沒有關係——他們不懂得這些數據是何含義,也許在不經意中就將其篡改了。
  由於以上原因,常引出數據收集的下一個步驟(事實上已經開始進入數據轉換),即對準備的數據進行校驗。
  數據校驗的方式多種多樣,但主要還是通過重複數據準備的活動,然後對兩次結果進行比較來完成。對兩次結果的比較可以交給機器完成,機器只識別相同與不同,而具體差異的處理仍舊需要人來完成,這事實上又增加了一次出錯的可能性。
  目前,几乎所有专门的應用中,都必須解決數據收集及其轉換中所存在的幾個問題:
1)   數據越陳舊,用處越少;
2)   檢查及校驗錯誤需要花費大量時間,且延長了輸入階段;
3)   收集和轉換過程中,步驟越多,出錯機會越多。
  爲了儘量減少以上問題所造成的影響,數據收集及轉換的設備在兩個領域中都得到了發展。
  首先,集中化的數據準備部門發展除了更有效、更尖端的設備,以求最大程度地減少延遲,并把人為的錯誤保持到最低程度。
  其次,新的设备能允许收集和转换的发生尽可能地接近于数据的生成源。这样也就又省下了一些步骤,检验需要花费时并非所有的数据在收集阶段都会发生错误, 校驗目的是为防止錯誤,但是这项工作是否有價值,卻是因情況而異的。

→精確度
  一些时候精确度十分重要 ,比如在一个银行系统中帳戶的记录;但有时它又不那么重要,比如个人信息当中的姓名及通讯地址。精确度的重要性决定了 检验的必要性,因此我们需要考察数据准备过程中 影響精确度的各种因素——首先就是传统的数据准备设备。历史上十分著名的包括了卡片穿孔机,卡片穿孔检验机,紙帶穿孔机,紙帶校驗機等(这里不做详细介 绍)。後來又發展出了鍵盤,各種直接錄入設備和直接記錄設備,極大程度地提升了數據收集階段的效率。
  但由數據收集到數據處理始終需要歷經數據轉換,各種設備的發展也衍生了各種數據記錄方式,具體體現就是種類繁多的數據格式。
  要將這些不同格式的數據進行轉換,目前它們共通的都是轉換為計算機處理系統下的二進制數據,需要我們提前對數據表示的相關知識有所瞭解。

→数据表示
  數據有離散、連續之分,在計算機內,數據都是離散型數據。處理連續數據,我們將其進行近似處理,這便是所謂的近似法。
  數據的表示,有二進制、八進制、十六進制等,不一而足。各種數據在使用中爲了統一,往往存在一個通行的標準,這樣做被稱之為標準化。
  數據的標準化事實上對應了各種編碼,常見的編碼如ASCII,UTF-8等。
  對數據進行標準化處理,其目的在於統一數據格式。數據的格式指數據以特定位置、特定形式組合的方式進行表示的規定。標準化的數據其實就意味著統一的數據格式,如此,在處理時就能省去對各個數據項進行重複說明,能提高數據處理的效率。

注:在《數據處理入門(下)》中,所有的圖片均來自網絡。

數據處理入門(上)

內容簡介

簡述計算機軟硬件系統的必要基礎知識;

著重討論數據處理這一概念——包括數據的收集、轉換、表示、傳輸和處理(以及處理的環境及標準化和應用的特點)。

對於數據處理的許多基本技術、設備和概念都做了詳細的圖解和說明。

第一章 數據處理概述

1.1 引言

本章就數據處理的一些基本概念作一般地討論。

數據處理(Data Processing),常記作DP或EDP(電子數據處理),此詞在商業方面用得較多。

何謂“數據處理”?

首先,我們要知道什麽叫做“數據”。

數據可簡單定義為——那些被處理后能產生信息的東西。即,數據可被認為是任何的基本事實。而信息可被看作是我們借助於數據(基本事實)作出行動或決定的有用的東西。→那麼,利用一組基本事實去產生信息的過程就是所謂的處理。

商業上,數據可以是關於工作時間、接收票據、庫存量以及供貨單位和顧客地址的事實。所有這些大量的數據都需要去收集、排成順序并組合或表示出來,以利於人們去管理商業。如,一份交給顧客全部貨物的清單以及他們所付的款數就是一組數據。現在對數據作出處理——把那些過期還未付款的顧客挑選出來,列成一份清單,這份清單上的數據是有用的(對商家而言),這些數據就是信用管理員所需要的信息。

1.2 數據

認識到數據的定義之後,我們就必須考慮其中所涉及的定義要素。

首先是處理。

數據一般被認為是能輸入到某個處理系統中去的一些事實。而就處理而言,不局限於計算機系統。因為不僅計算機能對數據進行處理,人也能對其進行處理。因此,觀察人如何處理數據信息,我們可以找到計算機進行數據信息處理的模仿對象/方式。

你可以對日常數據進行觀察。OK,我們的結論是:數據的表示存在三方面要素。就數據本身而言,其是以符號/文字/圖案等具象方式存在的。因此數據的表示使得數據得以存在,而能為人所處理/感知的數據。因此其表示附帶相應的要求。

一則,以適當的方式提供——即數據應該用一種可以被我們理解/懂得的語言來表示/書寫。

二則,數據要求有適當的精確度。例如,天氣預報不可能給出準確的數字,但實際上,觀眾只需要能夠感官上認知天氣冷暖的數據即可;而牛奶成份指示器則需要絕對的精確和正確,因為顧客需要這個精確度來判斷牛奶的質量。這說明數據表示時需要恰當的精確度。

三則,數據需要形象的表示方法。既然人對數據的表示是有要求的,(即並不是任何形式的數據都可被人接受/理解,更別說處理了)那麼恰當/正確的數據表示方法就是能讓數據滿足這些要求的存在。例如,公墓的墓碑上刻有碑文,碑文要求保留很長一個時期,因此用石刻的方式。而路況廣播所傳遞的信息只是憑司機當時的聽覺,因此可以用無線電波的方式傳遞數據信息——滿足了瞬時效應和清晰度要求。

1.3 處理

數據是用來幹什麼的,這一目的就決定了信息的特徵。

數據經過處理便產生輸出——信息。這種處理也許很簡單,也有可能很複雜。

數據處理入門(上)

買東西的例子事實上還說明了數據處理系統的另一個共同特性。如果主婦本人不親自到商店去,怎麼辦呢?她可以拜託她的鄰居去幫她買這些東西啊。她只要把購物清單交給鄰居就可以了。這時,主婦這個處理系統的輸出就變成了鄰居這一處理系統的輸入了!數據處理系統常常就是一環扣一環,這一階段的輸出構成下一階段的輸入!

明確了數據處理的輸入和輸出內容,我們還需要瞭解處理的內容。

科學家經過觀察,總結認為,處理可以看成由下列活動的一個或多個組成:

——計算(例如,需要的食品量與庫存的食品量之差)

——比較(例如,已有的方案里,是否有某種情況存在?)

——邏輯(例如,按正確的順序進行算術運算)

——決定(例如,賭馬,猜測哪匹獲勝)

1.4 機械化

上面的例子,都沒有涉及到任何機械或電子的處理形式,因為它們都是比較瑣碎的事情或者說完全不適合機械處理。適合機械處理的多數作業是在商業和工業領域中,而非普通家庭環境中。

那麼,適合機械處理的一個數據處理系統是什麽樣的呢?

機械適合于做一些涉及到重複性工作的事情。

只有一個作業要做的地方,採用一個簡單的機械就行。若有多個作業或者多個子處理一次完成,那麼有可能要考慮全部的機械化。

因此,重複性的工作是一個有利條件,而可自動操作的順序是另一個有利條件。

從而,我們可以設定計算機作為處理電子數據的機器,按照輸入-處理-輸出的順序來進行。對於這三個不同的階段,通常都設有一個單獨的設備。

首先來看輸入。人類通過感覺來獲取外界數據/信息,文字中傳遞的數據/信息通常是由我們的眼睛獲取到的。計算機并沒有眼睛,但它有一個能完成類似工作的設備——輸入設備。例如,某些計算機的輸入設備設有光敏元件,它們可以掃描預先準備的數據,并把明暗不同的圖案轉換成計算機可用的電子信號。這就相當於人的眼睛將信號送給大腦。

另一種形式的輸入設備,即打字機上的鍵盤。它連於計算機,按一下鍵就產生一個代碼電子信號。

同樣,有多種方法能是計算機產生它的輸出。恰當地從這些方法選取才能順利地完成計算機作業。

輸出可以通過一台打印設備,一台和打字機一樣的小型設備或一台高速的大型設備產生。對於那些不需要打印的記錄,可用電視螢光屏顯示輸出。

再來討論處理。上文已闡述過,計算機是一個處理系統,我們通過對人這一處理系統的觀察,進行了計算機處理系統的設計。因此,處理系統的要素不變,仍是輸入,處理,以及輸出。

計算機由輸入、輸出設備和一個中央處理器(CPU)組成。

CPU擔負處理的職責,處理的內容就有——計算、比較、邏輯、決定。

目前,CPU設計有一個運算器(AU)——負責算術、比較、決定;一個存貯器(內部存儲器/內存)——存放輸入的數據、中間結果、最後結果、程序(即使一個簡單的任務,長春也涉及到一個以上的操作。如(5+6)×26這個代數式的運算,並且,除了不只一個操作這一特點外,運算時,正確的運算順序也十分重要,譬如(5+6)×26與5+6×26的運算結果不一樣。);一個控制器(CU)——控制程序的執行順序。

通常,當我們給定一作業讓計算機來做時,必須將作業排成一個操作表,我們把這種表稱為程序。一個表就代表一個計算機的程序或一個事件的程序。程序/操作表跟數據一樣,存放在CPU的內存中。通過以上敘述,現在可直接對數據處理的兩個系統進行比較。

數據處理入門(上)

對於這兩個處理系統,我們做了如下抽象:

數據處理入門(上)

在人工數據處理系統中,辦事員按照自己的手工操作過程親自控制操作順序,並且每當完成一步,他就去處理下一步。當他完全處理了輸入,並且產生了輸出;他有得繼續進行下一個輸入的處理工作。這種採用相同方法的重複工作一直到IN文件架上空了,或者他要轉到某個其他的任務(比如午餐間隙)才會中斷。

而計算機完成這種處理,通常是直到那裡沒有任何的輸入了或者遇到了一個終端信號,改終端信號發送給控制器(CU)并告訴它轉到更高優先級的作業。

第二章 處理的主要類型

2.1 適應性

本章對那些特別是在商業環境中適合計算機的集中數據處理類型進行討論。

一個操作執行的越頻繁,適合自動化處理的可能性就越大。

2.2 成批處理

工資管理一直是計算機的一個傳統任務。

每個雇員的數據量是相當小的,例如工作小時、等級、發款日期等。需要的主要結果也很小,如工資變動情況;儘管計算工資的規則相當複雜,但是這個規則對每個雇員卻是完全相同的。因此,一旦設計好這種指令程序,就可用於任意多個雇員了。

這一類的應用就叫做成批處理——以信息週期為單位,把數據收集起來,集中進行處理,這種處理需要一些時間,一次處理結束之後,在下一個週期重複進行相同的整個處理過程。

2.3 聯機處理

處理系統的應用還有另外一種類型——聯機處理,這時信息並非成批收集起來進行處理,而是立即進行處理。有些作業按這種方式進行處理會更加有效。

2.4 系統的改進

第一章中,家庭主婦總需要不斷重複家裡食品的儲備工作,工業中也有類似。爲了保持必不可少的物品的儲備,必須按照下列因素來重新訂購物品:什麽物品預計會被使用;當前的庫存量;預計的交貨日期;以及購買策略。→並非所有庫存物品都要進行一次重新訂貨,而計算機的速度卻是允許把整個庫存量檢查一遍并指出短缺物品項目的,這可以大大提升工業運作的穩定性。

計算機還能隨時保存使用的記錄,然後按一定比例進行綜合預報。這項工作如果用手工來做會花費很多的時間、金錢,但人們使用計算機卻可以在費用和對大數據量的處理需求之間找到平衡。這是成批處理的一種應用。

廣義來講(泛泛而言),一個工資管理系統就是一個辦公室工作過程的在線,但在一個庫存控制系統中,一個計算機化的系統要比一個辦公室工作系統的執行能力強的多。

2.5 大型文件

儘管處理過程簡單,但若涉及到大量需要被處理的數據/對象/文件的時候,使用計算機很是非常值得的。例如,政府互助協會需要對投資者和借款者的帳目做大量的存儲記錄;類似銀行要保留其大量顧客的帳目文件等等。

2.6 過程控制

目前,我們只討論了人言所能識別的數據——如字母或數字,並非所有的數據都是如此的!在過程控制中,數據可能是溫度,物資的流量或者重量,或許還會存在著一種要求,使上述數量限制在可容許的範圍之內。這時,每一個數據採樣經過檢查也許會引起校正動作,最好在下一個數據取樣之前完成這個校正動作。這類處理就叫做實時處理。

當前,實時處理已經越來越多,如導彈系統,反導彈系統和交通管理系統。

2.7 分佈式數據處理

很多商業機構分佈在廣闊的地理區域內:如銀行、國稅局、民航局。同一商業機構,都需要存取公用的商業信息。一種辦法是一個中央計算機內保留所有的信息,并在遠程(遠處)的辦公室打電話更計算機中心聯繫,讓一個操作員去詢問計算機。另一種辦法是直接將遠距離辦公室跟忠言計算機聯結起來,這要借助於這個國家的郵政電話服務機構。

這樣,在一個銀行的分行,就可以從計算機文件中查找出任何帳目的平衡情況,並且能就地顯示出來,同時將請求發送給計算機中心,然後通過電話線再把回答送回到分行。有時對一個本地的辦公室來說,在送往計算機設備之前和從該設備接收之後,最好先把本地辦公室的信息處理一下——這件事由本地的CPU來做。

用這種方法,一個零售的分理處就可以在本地計算機上提供發票和加工訂單,為匯總帳目而把這些數據發送到中央處理機,而且還能接收到其他分理處庫存情況的信息。這種計算機和終端的網絡就叫分佈式數據處理,包括了數據傳輸。

第三章 存儲程序的概念

3.1 CPU

計算機程序在CPU的存儲器里。

最早的一個程序的定義是:一個程序是一個指令表。

或者更確切地說:一個程序是一個計算機可識別的指令表。

3.2 指令類型

上文中,我們說要執行某個作業,我們需要把它的執行步驟變成一個操作表,即程序。而由程序的定義(一個程序時一個指令表),我們可以知道,指令表就是操作表。則指令即操作。

而我們確切地指出了——一個程序是一個計算機可識別的指令表。那麼,什麽樣的指令才能被計算機識別呢?

還記得前文中我們對操作的分類么?

指令即操作,則指令也可分為計算、比較、邏輯、決定四個內容。

在計算機中,它們分別對應於算數運算指令、判別指令、轉移指令和I/O指令。數據的獲取(輸入)是爲了用來運算,運算是爲了比較(判零),比較是爲了改變執行順序(轉移),按要求的順序執行是爲了得到結果(輸出)。

3.3 程序流程圖

把一個程序直觀地描述出來,最簡單的方法就是用一系列的方框,每一個方框里都含有一個說明,並且把這些方框用流線按其先後順序連接起來。這就是所謂的一個“流程圖”。

程序流程圖就是前文中所述操作表/指令表,這個名稱只是對四種類型進行不同的表示及關聯方法設定后取的一個新的稱呼,代表它符合公認的表示規範。

下面舉個例子說明。例子:根據本周周號推算下周周號(周號範圍在1-52)。

上文中的流程圖直觀地反映了一個作業的完成步驟,它就是我們最早提到的操作表!我們用有統一規範的語句將它們表示出來,這就是源程序啦,源程序的每一個步驟就是一個指令/操作。圖中同樣還反映出計算機在做判別時是需要判零的哦。

基於上文已做的鋪墊,我們來細細考慮一下計算機數據處理系統的處理過程吧!

首先,獲取數據(輸入)。誒?不對啊,計算機不是很笨嗎?小猴子說,它只能判零啊,既然如此,這麼笨的傢伙怎麼知道什麽叫做獲取數據?

好吧,讓我們來看看目前的技術是怎樣解決這個問題的。

(某些頭腦異常的傢伙)經過仔細觀察,得出結論——程序中所用到的數據可以分為兩種:

——輸入數據,通常是變量和未知量(如,上例中的本周周號),以及變量結果(如:下周周號);

——程序數據,多事不變的已知量(如,上例中1和52);

想辦法讓程序知道要找的數據在什麽地方,並且讓它知道去做什麽。所以可以把一個程序步或指令剖分為下列步驟:

——去做啥,即操作;

——在哪兒,找到參加運算的數據存放地。

3.4 存儲器編址

利用計算機可以進行判零的特性,我們把計算機存儲器編以不同的地址標號。事實上,一台計算機的存儲器可分成許多大小相等的存儲單元,并給每個單元都分配一個標誌號,稱之為地址。由於從一開始,地址系統就是從零開始算起的,因此,通行的規範是從零開始對存儲器編號。

上文就已經說過,我們把程序也同數據一樣存放在存儲器里。如此,程序指令和數據都有了可以被計算機判零的編號,傻傻的計算機就可以干各種複雜的工作了!

歷史上,第一台大規模計算機(1946年美國製造),即電子數字計分計算機,它在具有好幾百個插頭和導線的插件板上設置了程序代碼!這種辦法在程序之間差異大的情況下,極易出錯,而且很費時;而就在新中國成立的同一年(1949年),劍橋大學研製出第一台內部存儲程序計算機(EDSAC),EDSAC就是把程序同數據一樣存放在存儲器里的,然後計算機從程序起點處的指令開始一次執行這個程序。當一條判別指令到了滿足條件的地方時,它就必須轉到別處去執行另一條指令。OK,如此,計算機需要的就只有兩個東西了——指令/操作和地址。

由此得出計算機存儲器編址的三個要義:

——存儲器里的數據和指令時存在不同的位置的;

——每條指令包含一個指令內容(即操作)和一個地址(至少一個地址);

——地址就像門牌號,一個地址號對應的內存單元存放的可以是數據,也可以是一條指令。

3.5 程序順序

計算機最強大的功能之一就是重複執行一個過程哦,所以我們往往需要一條轉移指令來讓它重新進入前面已執行過的程序。

下圖就是一個典型的存儲程序的邏輯圖。

數據處理入門(上)

3.6 累加器與寄存器

在周號的例子中,當我們從本周周號里減去52時,那麼原來的結果就被破壞了。這種破壞性的運算可能是非常麻煩的,因此通常都用另外的叫做寄存器的存儲單元(可以對初始數據、中間結果及結果都分配內存空間,使數據可以逆向尋回)來做這種運算,而這些寄存器中的主寄存器常常又叫做累加器——如果累加器的內容為0/非0,那麼就轉移。

其他寄存器是用來做算術的,這種算術有些指令本身就可以做,尤其是修改地址——叫做“變址”,這些寄存器就稱為變址寄存器。它們和累加器一樣,也能做判別,但只能判零。

對不同的操作數(它們的地址有一個簡單的相互關係)進行同一種操作時,就要用到變址寄存器。

如,我們要把地址100,101,102,……,109的內容加起來,那麼程序就應該像下面這樣:

0 清累加器[將累加器置零]

1  Add(100)[將100的內容加到累加器中]

2  Add(101)

3  Add(102)

4  Add(103)

5  Add(104)

6  Add(105)

7  Add(106)

8  Add(107)

9  Add(108)

10 Add(109)

11 Print(累加器的內容)

3.7 修改地址是個問題

如果我們能把一個變址寄存器的內容跟地址加起來表示修改地址,那上面的程序就可以短多了!行不行呢?

作如下嘗試:

恩,我們把變址寄存器加上一個圓括號,就像(IR)一樣,用來表示一個變址寄存器的內容。現在,一個地址的內容就可以寫成(100+(IR)),如果IR地址的內容是5,則這個式子表示的就是地址100+5或105的內容~。

這時程序可以改寫成:

0        清累加器

1 清IR

2  Add(100+(IR))

3  Add 1 to (IR)[(IR)+1→IR]

4  IF(IR)=10,Jump 6

5  Jump 2

6 Print(累加器的內容)

如此,我們已經節省了幾條指令,雖然在此省的不多,但要是在一個很長的程序按這個比例去省的話,那麼將會省很多指令。所以,這樣的考慮是有價值的。

3.8 子程序

程序中的另一種要求就是在不同的地方要作同一種處理。爲了避免多次寫這段程序,我們只須對該程序引入一個專門的入口和出口過程,使其在整個程序中只出現一次。這就是子程序。

在進入一個子程序之前,程序必須在當該子程序執行完時,把要被執行的指令的地址存儲起來。這種附加的地址叫做“鏈地址”(指針),而且子程序的最後一條指令總是“GOTO鏈地址”(首/尾指針)。

3.9 機器代碼

目前我們談到的程序實際上都在計算機的存儲器里,這樣的程序,要能夠被使用就要有各自的實際地址,計算機根據這些地址來識別它們。而真正的計算機指令是下面這樣的:

11100101

10001000

11011101

……

這是“機器代碼”指令,計算機只認識這種形式的指令(即可以判零)。

你願意用上面這低級又特別繁雜的方法來寫程序?

如此浪費時間,還容易出錯,這可不是明智的選擇。這不,後來就發展了更好的辦法。這裡,我們只討論兩個主要的改進——自動翻譯程序和高級程序語言。

3.10 地址標號

爲了和只會說機器代碼(即0和1)的計算機進行交流,我們做的第一個改進,就是發展了一個自動的翻譯程序。

利用這個自動翻譯程序,就不必用二進制數11000011來表示地址195了,只需要給這個地址取一個名字,比如“A”,“B”,或“TAX-PAID”。每次用到這個地址的時候,翻譯程序就可以自動地將他轉換成正確的二進制代碼。

這樣,我們要記的就是名字,而計算機來記憶那個名字對應的二進制數字地址,找到該地址里存放的數據或指令。

3.11 語言法則

還是爲了和只會0和1的計算機溝通,第二個改進可謂聲名遠播——它就是我們現在編程時使用的高級程序語言。

這個改進是基於第一個改進的。有了自動翻譯程序后,我們可以使用人意識里已有意義的代號來表示不同的二進制數,而如何映射全憑自動翻譯程序的設計者喜歡。我們對自己說的語言進行剖析,然後再仿照我們的日常語言給那些莫名其妙的二進制數加上代號,如此,高級語言就誕生了。

高級語言使人的工作變簡單了,好記又快,而且又精確(一個代號對應其固有的二進制數,而人工輸入二進制數的話很容易被密密麻麻的0和1弄得眼花繚亂以致出錯)。用高級語言寫的程序指令就需要多一步處理——由機器/翻譯系統翻譯成機器代碼。各種高級語言都各自有一個專門的翻譯系統。

翻譯系統事實上是一個計算機程序,我們稱之為“編譯”程序,它能接受程序員的指令,又能輸出機器碼指令。

3.12 計算機程序

現在,你對計算機是否有一個明確的認識了呢?

一個計算機程序就是計算能能夠按其說明的順序去執行的一組指令。指令有四種類型,即算術指令,判別指令,轉移指令,輸入/輸出指令。

高級語言允許用較簡單的,更容易明白的形式去編寫計算機程序,但用高級語言編寫出來的程序要通過編譯程序翻譯成機器碼。

計算機的存儲器是由一組經過任意編號的單元組成的,這種單元能保存指令和數據。尋址一個存儲單元常常是通過一個名字或者標號,而非難於記憶的二進制單元號(還容易出錯)。

在高級語言和機器碼之間的語言是彙編語言或低級語言。這種語言也是要通過翻譯程序才能變成機器碼。

讓我們回到開始,我們對生活中的工作進行了觀察,發現我們在做的事情實際上大多數都是數據處理。接著我們對“數據”的概念進行了思考,給出了一個可行的原理體系——數據-數據處理-處理系統-輸入,操作/處理過程與輸出-操作/處理過程-操作表-指令表/程序-指令-機器碼指令-改進指令-翻譯系統/編譯程序-高級程序語言指令,至此,我們對問題的處理才從身體力行轉變到了只要動動手指頭交給計算機去做的地步,而這樣的變化在計算機及高級程序語言誕生了迅速蔓延開來,我們的社會發生了巨大的變化——這邊是二十世紀中後期發生的轟轟烈烈的第三次技術革命!

第四章 數制

4.1 進制轉換表

事實上,我們意識里的數字幾乎都是默認其為十進制數為前提的。

十進制只是一種計量數量的方式,我們剛好有十個手指,所以人類選擇了十進制,但計算機沒有十個手指,它只有高電位(電路通路)和地電位(電路斷路)兩種狀態,所以它只認識0和1,因此,計算機使用二進制。

就像九九乘法表一樣,進制轉換表需要你爛熟於心。當記住,我們已經學過的加、減、乘、除都是十進制的,因此,你做進制轉換運算時,若沒有特殊聲明,都被認作(包括你自己)是十進制運算哦!

數據處理入門(上)

下面給出一個進制轉換的例子:

數據處理入門(上)

4.2 模擬計算機

需注意,計算機不僅只是“數字”計算機,還有模擬計算機。

模擬計算機中,我們用量來表示數(無論採用生麼數字)。量就是只有帶上單位以後才具有意義的數據。並且,“數字”意味著數據以離散的方式在計算機內表達,“模擬”意味著數據以連續的方式在計算機內表達。

第五章 中央處理器/CPU

5.1 引言

前面已給出了數據處理與計算機的大致輪廓。因此,現在我們可從計算機CPU出發,進一步分析數據處理系統的各個部份。

CPU含有三個部份:

——運算器(AU):進行算術和邏輯運算;

——控制器(CU):控制作用;

——存儲器:保存程序和數據。

接下來,我們依次討論。

5.2 運算器

5.2.1 算術運算

運算器只做加減法,每一次只能處理兩個值。

AU中有一個累加器和一個計數器。如果累加器(初值必須是零)搭配上計數器一起使用,就可以進行乘法和除法運算。有了加減乘除,就可以編寫簡單的數學函數,通常我們把這些函數設計成專用電路,并把這些運算構成的專用電路叫做“微程序”,裝入AU。

微程序裝入硬件后,我們可以通過簡單的機器代碼指令,如乘法,去調用這些微程序,避免代碼的繁複。

5.2.2 邏輯運算

邏輯器執行的功能是按位/逐位進行比較。

計算機內有三個邏輯比較運算符:AND、OR、NOT EQUIVALENT(=NOR)。這三個邏輯運算符的主要用途之一就是對一長串的位的模式進行比較。

5.2.3 轉移

AU除了算術運算和邏輯運算外,另一功能是當程序指定有“轉移”或“GOTO”時進行判定操作。一個轉移的作用,就是改變計算機所遵循的嚴格的順序操作,使它去執行與緊跟著的存儲單元內的下一條指令不同的另一條指令。

轉移是AU對自身基本功能——邏輯/算術運算的再運用,可以理解為:當程序中出現“轉移”或“GOTO”→判斷是條件轉移還是無條件轉移→

→無條件轉移:給出轉移目的地地址號。

→條件轉移:判斷條件是否為真/符合事實(1)→真:轉移;假(0):不轉移。

5.3 控制器

CU實際上是一個轉接中心。它只會和協調程序指令以調用全部操作,其中包括輸入或輸出設備的啟動或停止,包括將數據送到存儲器和從存儲器接收數據,也寶庫存儲器與AU之間的數據傳送。

CU將保持計算機處理直到遇到下列三種情況之一才會停止:

1) 全部數據處理完畢,并在作業末位發現HALT指令;

2) 在系統的某處發現了一個故障;

3) 停止或中斷計算機。

由於控制器實際上是一個轉接中心,所以,我們可以通過日常生活中非常熟悉的電話交換系統(也是一個轉接中心)來間接認識它。

下圖給出一個電話交換系統:

數據處理入門(上)

由此,你可以想像出控制器的工作情形——一個控制器具有所有可能的數據通路,它按指令(根據自身的指令條件/原則)對這些通路的要求進行必要的連接。

當我們說到“分佈式數據處理”或“連接處理器”時,不難想像它們不過是上述這些交換機連在一起的簡單表達而已。

5.4 實際的算術運算

這裡我們以加法為例。

問題:A+B,產生一個結果C。

一條完整的指令將完成系列操作:把地址A的內容和地址B的內容相加,結果放在地址C中,然後到地址D中取下一條指令。

這個求和過程需要在基本硬件上來討論,因此,我們需要先認識三個基本硬件概念:寄存器、加法器、機器週期。

下面給出一個CPU結構抽象圖:

數據處理入門(上)

那麼實際的加法運算究竟是怎樣完成的呢?

首先,我們解釋一下上文所提到的三個概念:

——寄存器:一個能接收信息,保存信息以及在控制器只會下傳輸信息的設備。不同寄存器的名字跟它的用途有關。一個地址寄存器保留一個存儲單元的地址或者一個IO設備的地址;一個指令寄存器含有代執行的指令;一個累加器保留累加的值(最後結果或中間結果);一個存儲寄存器含有送往存儲器的數據以及從存儲器接收的數據。

——加法器:將兩個寄存器的數據相加,結果放在第三個寄存器里。這就是加法器。

——機器週期:計算機中,所有的操作都發生在固定的時間間隔內。通過一個i的電子時鐘一告訴發出有規則的脉衝信號來確定這些時間間隔。這些時間間隔便是機器週期,即一個機器週期(=固定數量的脉衝)就是計算機完成一個機器操作的時間。完成一條指令所需的機器操作次數取決於它的複雜性。

下面,我們回到上文的問題,我們用指令表示之:ADD A,B,C,D。

它的時序(即微程序)是:

0        把指令從所在的存儲單元(指令地址寄存器含有該指令的存儲地址)取出,放到IO寄存器。

1        把該指令放在線性的指令寄存器中。

2        把叫做ADD微程序的第一部份進行譯碼。

3        ADD微程序將住存儲地址A放入現行地址寄存器中。

4        通過讀取週期來去地址A的內容并放到IO寄存器中。

5        IO寄存器的內容放入第一個加法寄存器(如x)中。

6        ADD微程序吧B主存儲地址放到線性的地址寄存器中。

7        同5.

8        同6,將本內容放到加法寄存器y中。

9        把x和y從最低有效位(右手邊)開始想家,結果放在加法寄存器z中。

10    z的內容傳送到存儲IO寄存器中。

11    從現行指令寄存器中取出地址C并放入線性地址寄存器中。

12    通過寫週期將其結果放入C中。

13    對D做同12的處理。

14    通過讀週期吧D的內容取出并放入IO寄存器中。

15    把內容傳送到線現行指令寄存器中。

這些微程序都在控制器(也包括時鐘)的控制下進行,它們作為一個完整的功能硬化在硬件裏面。(待续)

撰文的知识与规范总结 引文的知识与规范梳理(下)

目录
1 目的及范围
1.1 目的
1.2 范围
1.2.1 撰文
1.2.2 引文
2 撰文
2.1 何为论文
2.1.1 论文的定义
2.1.2 一次文献的定义
2.1.3 简单区分论文与论着、技术说明
2.2论文的类型/级别
2.2.1 学位论文
2.2.2 刊物论文
2.2.3 会议论文、会议报告
2.2.4 调研报告
2.2.4.1 文献综述
2.2.4.2 科技报告
2.2.4.3 少量其它文体
2.3 写论文的规范
2.3.1 论文的格式标准体系
2.3.2 论文的格式规范
2.3.2.1 学术论文的通行格式规范
2.3.2.2 学术论文的子类格式规范
3 引文
3.1 何为引文
3.2 文献的定义
3.3 常见文献——图书、数据、档案
3.3.1 图书
3.3.2 资料
3.3.3 档案
3.4文献的类型/级别
3.5 新型文献术语
3.5参考文献/引文的定义
3.6参考文献/引文的表达规范
参考文献

 

(续)

2.3.2.2 学术论文的子类格式规范

       以学术论文的通行格式规范为基础,学位论文、刊物论文、会议论文、调研报告这几个子类的格式还添加了其它规则。

子类之 学位论文格式规范

      在学术论文的通行格式规范为基础上,学位论文包括五个部份:前置部份、主体部份、参考文献、附录、结尾部份[4]

       其格式规范如下:

子类之 刊物论文格式规范

   一般期刊每年的第一期,会刊出该刊论文及引文的格式要求,参照其规范要求撰文。

子类之 会议论文、调研报告格式规范

这两种文体可以在学术论文的格式规范上,根据具体需要作出调整。

一般来说,若文章是短文,则不需要目录;若文章位于期刊中,则不需要封面、题名页;也有可能论文的级别高于一般学术论文,这时往往像学位论文一样,需要有封面、题名页、目录等部份,并且表明密级、UDC编号等。总之,具体的规范视情况而定,但不能脱离大的规范风格。

引文

3.1 何为引文

       在论文中引用他处文献,以为论据进行说明,称之为引文。

3.2 文献的定义

文献(literature)是指记录有知识、信息的一切载体[12]

文献构成的三个基本要素:

Ÿ 信息内容:文献的核心;

Ÿ 载体材料:承载文献信息符号的物质材料;

Ÿ 记录方式:将包含信息内容的信息符号存储到载体材料上去的方法。

3.3 常见文献——图书、数据、档案

3.3.1 图书

定义不一,择重陈述如下[7]

一种定义 广义地泛指各种类型的读物。

联合国教科文组织的定义 狭义地指凡由出版社或出版商出版的49页以上的印刷品,具有特定的书名和著者名,编有国际标准书号(ISBN),有定价并取得版权保护的出版物。(5页以上,48页以下的称为小册子)

我国有关方面 广义地指以传播思想和知识为目的,用文字、图画或其他符号记录于一定形式的材料之上的著作物,包括公开或内部出版发行的书籍、报刊、图册、图片等印刷品和以光盘、磁盘等形式出版发行的电子书籍等。

3.3.2 资料

   资料一般是指研究问题、做出决策的客观依据。

   数据是按照一定用途和为了一定目的或解决某一问题而有选择地积累、分类、归纳和整理的各种文字材料,包括内部的电话记录、往来函电、会议记录、秘密文件等,公开出版发行的书籍、地图、报刊杂志上发表的文章、图片、消息、数据、调查报告、声像材料,以及费出版物的实物材料等[2]

3.3.3 档案

   档案是指国家机构、社会组织和各人在社会活动中形成的、保存备查的文字、图像、声音以及其他各种形式的原始记录[2]

3.4文献的类型/级别

       按不同的划分标准,文献可以分成多种类型[2]。常见的分类标准有:按载体(外在)形式划分、按加工层次(文献深度)划分、按内容的公开程度划分、按出版类型划分(传统文献类型划分方式)、按文献编制特点和人们的使用习惯划分、按文献的学科属性划分、按文献产生的时代阶段划分。

撰文的知识与规范总结 <wbr>引文的知识与规范梳理(下)

3.5 新型文献术语

   随着计算机技术的发展和普及,许多新兴文献术语开始涌现[2]

新型术语之 网络文献信息

   广义泛指通过计算机网络可以利用的文献信息资源综合。

   但从图书馆文献资源的角度来说,网络文献是指网络信息资源中能满足人们文献需求、改变人们只是结构的信息,抓哟包括电子书刊、电子报纸、各种类型的文献数据库等。

新型术语之 文献数据库

   能进行自动查询和修改的数据与信息的集合,是文献信息检索的主要工具。目前有各种各样的数据库(如期刊全文、电子图书、产品数据库、标准法规等),它们一般都由数据库商提供,通常限制在一定的范围内使用,可以在图书馆网站上看到大量的有权限的数据库。

新型术语之 多媒体文献

   运用计算机多媒体技术,以数字代码方式,将图、文、声、像信息存储在磁、光、电戒指上,通过计算机多媒体设备或者具有类似功能的其他设备进行阅读或使用。

新型术语之 开放获取文献

   开放获取,即Open Access, 简称OA,是近年来国际学术界、出版界、图书情报界为打破商业出版者对科学研究信息的垄断和暴戾经营而采取的推动科研成果通过互联网免费、自由地利用的运动。

   定义不一,但有两个最重要的属性:

– 作品一旦出版,任何人都可通过互联网实时、免费地获取;

– 版权属于作者,只要以适当的方式承认作者是文章的原创者,任何人都可以因合法的目的而阅读、复制、传播和使用该文章。

新型术语之 开放存取期刊

– 一般由出版商或者学会团体创办,通过同行评议,确保其专业质量;

– 主要采用作者付费而对读者免费的形式,是期刊能在更大范围内得到利用;

– 经费来源一般有两种:一是主办者全部筹集,杂志对作者和读者都是免费的;一是作者付费出版,读者免费使用。

新型术语之 开放获取仓储

  开放获取仓储又被称为“知识库”、“开放获取文档”,研究机构、学会团体或作者本人将未曾发表(预印本)或已经在传统期刊中发表过(后印本)的论文作为开放式的电子档案储存。

主要类型:

– 学科OA仓储:arXiv电子印本文文件库;

– 机构OA仓储:一般由大学、大学图书馆、研究机构、政府部门等创建和维护。如Florida State University Library的D-Scholarship仓储,MIT的D-Space系统,中科院国家科学图书馆知识库,香港科技大学图书馆知识库等。

开放获取仓储中的作品有两种:

   对于出版社有版权,但出版社允许进行自存储的作品,即作者可以自行存储信息到知识库中,如论文、专着等;

   对个人拥有版权的作品,作者可以直接放到知识库中。

   目前,开放获取数字资源的搜索引擎或一站式检索平台有OAIster、Socolar等。更多关于开放获取文献的信息可浏览:http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/overview.htm。
新型术语之 电子预印本与电子印本

  电子预印本指科研工作者的研究成果还未在正式的刊物上发表,而处于同行交流目的自愿通过E-mail或网络等方式传播的科研论文、科技报告等电子文献。

  电子印本是学着和专业人员利用电子文稿,通过网络分享他们的研究成果,包括预印本、在办、科技报告、会议文献以及其他电子形式的交流。

  电子(预)印文本文献库已经出现,较著名的有美国洛斯阿拉莫斯国家实验室(Los Alamos National Laboratory)的arXiv.org,奇迹文库预印本http://www.qiji.cn,中国科学技术信息研究所与国家科技图书文献中心联合 建设的“中国预印本服务系统”http://prep.istic.ac.cn,http://prep.nstl.gov.cn, 教育部科技发展中心主办的“中国科技论文在线”网站http://www.paper.edu.cn等。国外重要的预印本文献资源查阅http: //wxr.512j.com/dushu/tushuqingbao_manual/Preprint.htm。

3.5参考文献/引文的定义

   GB/T 7714—2005《文后参考文献着录规则》的定义 文后参考文献,简称为参考文献,指那些为撰写或编辑论文和著作而引用的有关文献信息资源[14]。

   2007年8月20日在清华大学召开的“综合性人文社会科学学术期刊编排规范研讨会”上决定,2008年起开始部分刊物开始执行新的规范“综合性期刊文献 引证技术规范”。该技术规范概括了文献引证的“注释”体例和“著者—出版年”体例。不再使用“参考文献”的说法。这种规范主要在层次较高的人文社会科学学 术期刊中得到了应用[15]。

3.6参考文献/引文的表达规范

   文后参考文献着录方法有“顺序编码制”和“著者-出版年制”[7]。我国多使用前者,其具体规则包括:
   ·根据正文汇总引用文献的先后,按著者、题名、出版事项的顺序标注;
   ·序码放在方括号内,上角标为语句的组成部份;
   ·各类文献着录格式均有规范[14],详见下表。

撰文的知识与规范总结 <wbr>引文的知识与规范梳理(下)

参考文献

[1]   全国文献工作标准化技术委员会第七分委员会. GB7713-87, 科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式 [S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 1987

 [2]​​ 王细荣, 韩玲, 张琴. 文献信息检索与论文写作 [M]. 第二版: 上海交通大学出版社出版发行, 2009

 [3]​​ 佚名. 论文写作指导 [M]. 西南交通大学出版社, 2009

 [4]​​国务院学位委员会办公室,中国科学技术信息研究所. GB-T 7713.1-2006, 学位论文编写规则 [S]. 中国标准出版社, 2007

 [5]​​全国文献工作标准化技术委员会第六分委员会. GB6447-86, 文摘编写规则 [S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 1986

 [6]​​全国文献工作标准化技术委员会. GB/T 3179-1992, 科学技术期刊编排格式 [S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 1992

 [7]​​全国文献工作标准化技术委员会. GBT 3860-2009, 文献主题标引规则 [S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 2009

 [8]​​全国文献工作标准化技术委员会. GB/T 1.1-2000, 标准化工作导则 第1部份:标准的结构和编写规则 [S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 2000

 [9]​​ 国家计量局. 中华人民共和国法定计量单位 [S]. 1990

 [10] 汉语拼音正词法基本规则委员会. GBT 16159-1996, 汉语拼音正词法基本规则 [S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 1996

 [11] 全国人民代表大会常务委员会. 中华人民共和国学位条例[S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 1980

 [12] 冯国平. 数学文献检索与论文写作 [M]. 成都: 西南交通大学出版社, 2011

 [13] 中华人民共和国国家知识产权局专利文献种类标识代码标准制订工作组. ZC 0008-2004, 专利文献种类标识代码标准 [S]. 中华人民共和国国家知识产权局​ 2004

 [14] 全国信息与文献标准化技术委员会第六分委会. GB/T 7714—2005, 文后参考文献着录规则 [S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 2005

 [15] 《清华大学学报》编辑部. 综合性期刊文献引证技术规范; 综合性人文社会科学学术期刊编排规范研讨会, 清华大学, F, 2007 [C]

撰文的知识与规范总结 引文的知识与规范梳理(上)

目录
1 目的及范围
1.1 目的
1.2 范围
1.2.1 撰文
1.2.2 引文
2 撰文
2.1 何为论文
2.1.1 论文的定义
2.1.2 一次文献的定义
2.1.3 简单区分论文与论着、技术说明
2.2论文的类型/级别
2.2.1 学位论文
2.2.2 刊物论文
2.2.3 会议论文、会议报告
2.2.4 调研报告
2.2.4.1 文献综述
2.2.4.2 科技报告
2.2.4.3 少量其它文体
2.3 写论文的规范
2.3.1 论文的格式标准体系
2.3.2 论文的格式规范
2.3.2.1 学术论文的通行格式规范
2.3.2.2 学术论文的子类格式规范
3  引文
3.1 何为引文
3.2 文献的定义
3.3 常见文献——图书、数据、档案
3.3.1 图书
3.3.2 资料
3.3.3 档案
3.4文献的类型/级别
3.5 新型文献术语
3.5参考文献/引文的定义
3.6参考文献/引文的表达规范
参考文献


引言

   本文通过查阅数据,总结了撰写各种论文的规范要求,并且重新梳理了参考文献的引用时的各种规范要求及注意事项。

   本文讨论的论文包括平时所说的学术论文、学位论文、调研报告、会议记录、综述总结、开题报告。

1 目的及范围

1.1 目的

以广泛调研的信息数据为基础,对撰文的相关知识及规范做出梳理总结,对引文的各种知识及规范做出归纳叙述。

1.2 范围

   本文内容的论述范围的简明陈述。

1.2.1 撰文

指撰写论文,学术性文章,报告,总结。

1.2.2 引文

   在撰文时引用他处文献。

2 撰文

2.1 何为论文

   目前,学力要求以论文为证,方可获得相应证书以为学力证明。

2.1.1 论文的定义

   论文是学术论文的简称。它是文献的一种,其从属于一次文献类型,论文是一次文献类型中的一种文体。

   学术论文又称学术文本或研究论文,是对某种问题的讨论或研究进行描述的文章。国家标准《GB7713-87科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式》给出学术论文的定义是:“某一学术课题在实验性、理论性或观测性上具有新的科研成果或创新见解和知识的科学记录;或是某种已知原理应用于十几种取得新的进展的科学总结,用以提供学术会议上宣读、交流或讨论;或在学术刊物上发表;或作其他用途的书面文件。”[1]

   本文所讨论论文如无说明都指学术论文。

2.1.2 一次文献的定义

   一次文献又被称为原始文献,指那些以著作者本人的研究工作或研究结果为依据,撰写而成的论着、论文、技术说明等[2]。

2.1.3 简单区分论文与论着、技术说明

   论着与论文在文字数量级别上不同。

   论文主要对自己的研究结果进行过程剖析,给出论据使人信服。技术说明则旨在说明技术的内容,对于技术的产生、推导不予阐述。

2.2论文的类型/级别

   选取按论文出版类型不同进行分类的分类方法,可以将论文划分为:学位论文,期刊论文,和会议论文、会议报告。

   另一种比较笼统的文体——情报调研报告,尽管无法按出版类型给出明确的划定,但它也属于学术论文的范畴,它包括文献综述,专题述评,和可行性报告(开题报告)。

   一种说法,将以上四者统称为学术论文,即论文[2]。

另一种分类则将论文分为科学技报告,学位论文,及学术论文[1]。

本文将按照第一种说法进行详细阐述。

2.2.1 学位论文

   定义一 国家标准《GB7713-87科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式》规定,学位论文是表明作者从事科学研究取得创造性的结果,或有新的见解,并以此为内容撰写而成、作为提出申请授予相应的学位时评审用的学术论文[1]。

   定义二 学位论文通常是高等院校毕业生在教师指导下,综合运用所学专业的理论和基本知识,及自己已经掌握的基本技能,描述出作者针对学科内某一现象、问题进行分析研究,从学术角度提出一定观点,得出的相关研究结论的学术论文。

   学位论文常常按学位等级分为学士论文,硕士论文,博士论文。不同级别学位论文在内容及评审上有所不同[3]。

   定义三 作者提交的用于其获得学位的文献[4]。

2.2.2 刊物论文

   在刊物(期刊、杂志、报纸)上正式发表了的论文。如下分别给出了定义[2]:

   期刊是指定期或不定期出版的有固定名称的连续出版物。

   杂志是与期刊相似的一种连续出版物,但它的内容多是通俗性的,如娱乐、新闻等。

   期刊与杂志都有国际标准连续出版物编号(International Standard Serial Number,简称ISSN),这个编号以ISSN为前缀,加上前后两段各4位,中间以连接号相连,共8位数字组成。

   国内出版的期刊、杂志还有国内统一刊号,如《情报学报》的国内统一刊号为:CN11-2257/G3。CN是中国国别代码,11是地区号,2257是11地区连续出版物的序号,G3是分类号。

   报纸是一种及时报导、内容广泛、文字通俗的信息源。重要报纸都编有月度或年度索引,国内出版的报纸也有国内统一刊号。报纸常被用来寻找关于国际、国内和本地事件的最新消息;寻找社论、评论、专家或大众的观点。

2.2.3 会议论文、会议报告

       会议可以按其组织形式和规模分为五类:国际性会议、地区性会议、全国性会议、学会或协会会议、同行业联合会议。

每一次会议的举行,都会产生相应的文献,我们称之为会议文献。会议论文和会议报告是会议文献中最主要的形式。

会议文献,即指各类学术会议的资料和出版物,包括会议前与会者预先提交的论文文摘,在会议上宣读或散发的论文,会上讨论的问题,交流的经验和情况等经过整理编辑加工而成的正式出版物(会议录)等。

通常会议文献包括会议论文、会议期间的有关文件、讨论稿、报告、征求意见稿等,但严格来说,会议文献仅指会议上发表的文献。

常用术语包括:

2.2.4 调研报告

2.2.4.1 文献综述

   文献综述(review, summarize, survey, comment, 简称综述)是指在手机大量文献资料后,经综合分析而写成的某一专题性的学术论文。它既是三次文献,也是一次文献。

2.2.4.2 科技报告

   科学技术报告是描述一项科学技术研究的结果或进展或一项技术研制试验和评价的结果,或是论述某项科学技术问题的现状和发展的文件。

   从技术角度,可以分为:

2.2.4.3 少量其它文体

   除文献综述、科技报告之外,还有开题报告、可行性报告/研究、专题述评等文体也属于此范畴。

2.3 写论文的规范

2.3.1 论文的格式标准体系

2.3.2 论文的格式规范

2.3.2.1 学术论文的通行格式规范

 (待续)

参考文献

[1]   全国文献工作标准化技术委员会第七分委员会. GB7713-87, 科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式 [S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 1987.

[2]   王细荣, 韩玲, 张琴. 文献信息检索与论文写作 [M]. 第二版: 上海交通大学出版社出版发行, 2009.

[3]   佚名. 论文写作指导 [M]. 西南交通大学出版社, 2009.

[4]   国务院学位委员会办公室,中国科学技术信息研究所. GB-T 7713.1-2006, 学位论文编写规则 [S]. 中国标准出版社, 2007.

[5]   全国文献工作标准化技术委员会第六分委员会. GB6447-86, 文摘编写规则 [S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 1986.

[6]   全国文献工作标准化技术委员会. GB/T 3179-1992, 科学技术期刊编排格式 [S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 1992.

[7]   全国文献工作标准化技术委员会. GBT 3860-2009, 文献主题标引规则 [S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 2009.

[8]   全国文献工作标准化技术委员会. GB/T 1.1-2000, 标准化工作导则 第1部份:标准的结构和编写规则 [S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 2000.

[9]   国家计量局. 中华人民共和国法定计量单位 [S]. 1990.

[10] 汉语拼音正词法基本规则委员会. GBT 16159-1996, 汉语拼音正词法基本规则 [S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 1996.

[11] 全国人民代表大会常务委员会. 中华人民共和国学位条例 [S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 1980.

[12] 冯国平. 数学文献检索与论文写作 [M]. 成都: 西南交通大学出版社, 2011.

[13] 中华人民共和国国家知识产权局专利文献种类标识代码标准制订工作组. ZC 0008-2004, 专利文献种类标识代码标准 [S]. 中华人民共和国国家知识产权局  2004.

[14] 全国信息与文献标准化技术委员会第六分委会. GB/T 7714—2005, 文后参考文献着录规则 [S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 2005.

[15] 《清华大学学报》编辑部. 综合性期刊文献引证技术规范; 综合性人文社会科学学术期刊编排规范研讨会, 清华大学, F, 2007 [C].

文學的計算機

眾所周知,軟件是用語言編寫而成的。你有沒有想過,既然都是語言寫成的產物,那麼做軟件和文學其實並沒有多大不同?

我們作文,講究先立意,再構思,再而至於著筆。軟件也是如此,先定位,再設計,再而至於編程。

文有文體之分,軟件也有類似分法。文體是基於著文時用於表情的文字組織方式而言的,軟件中基於編程組織方式的不同進行分類就是結構化編程產生的軟件、面向對象編程產生的軟件、面向服務編程產生的軟件等等。

編程的結果是軟件,這裡的軟件是廣泛而言的。它可以是小模塊,也可以是大系統。聯想到文學,軟件也就相當於我們著文的結果,它可以是一篇雜文,一部小說,一首詩或者一曲詞。那麼,我們怎樣錘煉自己的計算機內文學的功夫呢?

我們自出生開始就學習表達,至於識字念書,便開始學著以更多更高級的表達方式傳達自己的心情。當年齡日漸增加,我們開始學習說話的藝術,舉止的把握,識人知物的拿捏等等。每一種表達的錘煉,都是暗循其道的,對這錘煉之道的領會程度,決定著表達的效果,影響著表達者的前行。

我迄今的認為是,文學錘煉的要領是一步一步,夯實基礎。小學的基礎是,識字,知意,記詞,三者都必須在相應的語境中去認識和理解。然後,就可以寫簡單的作文了,抒情也好,記事也罷,都當是此時能力之所至。至於中學,字音、字形的工作已經大大減少,相應的,詞彙量開始變多,詞之海,浩瀚無邊,只有日積月累, 才能在著文時信手拈來,以期佳句天成。這時,我們還開始系統地認識文體,逐漸步入大型文學作品的閱讀之境。譬如一部小說,其中往往又會運用詩歌,記敘,雜 論等來完成小說的表達,這樣的混合簡直和混合編程的概念驚人一致!那麼,事實上,小說可以說是一種目前而言的最高級文體。數載流年,通讀小說者眾,閱小說 無數者多,然能著文者少,著文能為人識者更少,文著然後為人識,經時間沉澱,成佳作名篇之談者,便寥寥了。

再說軟件。當是從基礎開始,認識基本的指令(字),基本的表達結構(順序、選擇、循環;文學中的組詞是也),在相應的語境中去認識和理解,就像文學中用字 組詞,用詞造句一般,你要多練習用指令寫程序塊,用表達結構連塊成件,成件就是完成一個文件,例如一個.cpp 文件,其實這裡的文件不就是文學中造出來的句子么?就像有的句子可以單獨表意,有的句子要結合上下文理解,源文件也是有的可以單獨執行功能,有的卻要結合 其他的源文件一起才能執行功能。遣詞造句的功夫並非一朝一夕的事情,它貫穿在整個文學錘煉的骨體之中。以令寫塊,連塊成件的功夫也是如此,這功夫還有另一 個名字,叫做算法。

早在入學之初,我們便開始接觸遣詞造句的功夫的鍛煉,但我們可沒有一直遣詞造句!二、三年級的時候,我們就開始用自己拙劣的文筆著文了!

如此,你一定要知道,我們可不能一直只練習以令寫塊,連塊成件的功夫——即算法啊!你要知道算法(以令寫塊,連塊成件的功夫)怎樣進行,花一年時間認識以後,就該開始寫軟件了啊!

文學提高的方法,在此之後,便是詞彙的積累,佳句的積累,多讀,多想,多學,多寫,慢慢地,你的文章就變得好起來了。

做軟件也是如此,你要識得更多的指令(字),更多的程序塊(詞),更多的很棒的源文件(佳句),多讀,多想,多學,多寫,你的軟件也一樣變得好起來了。

事實上,各種系統的搭建方法其實也是可以類比的。它們像文學中的什麽呢?嗯,長篇文章的構思或者說結構。

而至於軟件工程,是指搭建軟件這件事情,就像著文這件事情一樣。

《刺猬的优雅》观感

有如品茗,淡淡,幽远。

超喜欢的话:
ll faut rien laisser au hasard quand  
一旦做出很少人能理解的决定  
on prend une décision qui a peu  de chance d’être comprise.  
切勿放任不管  
On n’imagine pas la rapidité avec  laquelle certaines personnes peuvent  
以免最宝贵的计划  
se mettre en travers des projets  auxquels on tient le plus.  
很快便会遭到他人破坏  

Phrases en japonais de  Paloma et Kakuro. Brouhaha.  A l’extérieur, elle est bardée de  piquants.  
浑身是刺,一座如假包换的堡垒  
Mais moi, j’ai l’impression qu’à  l’intérieur, elle est aussi raffinée 
但我感觉她只是故意装得很懒散 
que ces petites bêtes  faussement indolentes… 
其实内心跟刺猬一般细致  性喜孤独,优雅得无以复加 
Nous sommes tous  des hérissons dans la vie…  
每个人在日常生活中都是刺猬 

Computer History

Computer History

Computer History – B.C. – A.D. 1000

YearEvent
50,000 B.C.The first evidence of counting is dated back around 50,000 B.C.
30,000 B.C.Paleolithic peoples in Europe record numbers by notching tallies on bones, ivory, and stone.
4000 B.C.Metals begin being created and used.
3500 B.C.The first evidence of writing is dated back to around 3,500 B.C.
3400 B.C.Egyptians develop a symbol for the number 10, making counting larger numbers easier.
3300 B.C.The Bronze Age begins.
3000 B.C.Hieroglyphic numerals are first used in Egypt.
2600 B.C.Chinese introduce the abacus.
1350 B.C.Chinese use the first decimal.
1350 B.C.Iron begins being developed.
300 B.C.Mathematician Euclid releases Euclid’s Elements, 13 books that summarize all mathematical knowledge of the Greeks.
300 B.C.The Salamis Tablet, Roman Calculi, and hand-abacus, much like today’s abacus.
260 B.C.The Maya develop base-20 system of mathematics, which introduce zero.
1000 A.D.A churchman by the name of Gerbert d’Aurillac, who later becomes Pope Sylvester II, introduces the abacus and Hindu-Arabic math to Europe.

Computer History – 1400’s

YearEvent
1440Johannes Gutenberg completes his development of the Gutenberg press, the first printing press.
1492Leonardo da Vinci makes drawing of 13-digit cog-wheeled adder.

Computer History – 1500’s

YearEvent
1500Leonardo da Vinci invents the mechanical calculator.
1502Peter Henlein, a craftsman from Nuremberg Germany, creates the first watch.

Computer history – 1600’s

YearEvent
1600William Gilbert coins the term electricity from the Greek word elecktra.
1613The word “computer” was first recorded as being used in 1613 and was originally was used to describe a person who performed calculations or computations. The definition of a computer remained the same until the end of the 19th century when it began referring to a machine that performed calculations.
1617John Napier introduced a system called “Napiers Bones,” made from horn, bone or ivory the device allowed the capability of multiplying by adding numbers and dividing by subtracting.
1621The circular slide rule is invented by William Oughtred.
1623Blaise Pascal is born June 19, 1623.
1623The first known workable mechanical calculating machine is invented by Germanys Wilhelm Schickard. The machine is based on the idea of Napier’s Bones, mentioned earlier.
1632William Oughtred of Cambridge combines two Gunter rules to make a device that resembles today’s slide rule.
1642Frances Blaise Pascal invents a machine, called the Pascaline, that can add, subtract, and carry between digits.
1646Gottfried Leibniz is born July 1, 1646.
1662Blaise Pascal passes away August 19, 1662.
1671Gottfried Leibniz introduces the Step Reckoner, a device that can multiply, divide, and evaluate square roots.
1679Gottfried Leibniz demonstrates binary arithmetic, a discovery that shows every number can be represented by 0 and 1 only.

Computer history – 1700’s

YearEvent
1706Benjamin Franklin is born January 17, 1706.
1724Gabriel Fahrenheit purposes the Fahrenheit standard.
1725An early form of punch cards begin to be used in textile looms.
1752On June 10, 1752 Benjamin Franklin flies a kite that collects a charge after being struck by lightning.
1753Charles Stanhope is born August 3, 1753.
1765Joseph Niépce is born March 7, 1765.
1774The first telegraph is built.
1785Charles Thomas is born May 5, 1785.
1785Georg Scheutz is born September 23, 1785.
1789Georg Ohm is born March 16, 1789.
1790Benjamin Franklin passes away April 17, 1790.
1790Samuel Hopkins receives the first United States patent July 31, 1790.
1791Samuel Morse is born April 27, 1791.
1791Charles Babbage is born December 26, 1791.

Computer History – 1800’s

Year Event 1804 Frances Joseph-Marie Jacquard completes his fully automated loom that is programmed by punched cards. 1811 Alexander Bain is born in 1811. 1814 Izrael Staffel is born in 1814. 1815 Giovanni Caselli is born April 25, 1815. 1815 George Boole is born November 2, 1815. 1815 Ada Lovelace is born December 15, 1815. 1816 Charles Stanhope passes away December 15, 1816. 1819 Christopher Sholes is born February 14, 1819. 1820 Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar creates the “arithometer”, the first reliable, useful, and commercially successful calculating machine. 1822 In the early 1822 Charles Babbage purposed and begins developing the Difference Engine. 1823 Baron Jons Jackob Berzelius silicon (Si), which today is the basic component of IC’s. 1825 The earliest known surviving photograph is taken by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce in 1825 of a view of a courtyard from his window. 1827 George Simon Ohm introduces Ohm‘s law in the book Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet. 1831 Joseph Henry of Princeton invents the first working telegraph. 1832 Semen Korsakov uses punch cards for the first time to store and search for information. 1833 Joseph Niépce passes away July 5, 1833 (age 68) 1835 Elisha Gray is born August 2, 1835. 1837 Charles Babbage purposes the Analytical Engine. 1838 Samuel Morse invents a code (later called Morse code) that used different numbers to represent the letters of the English alphabet and the then digits. 1844 Samuel Morse dispatches the first telegraphic message over a line from Washington, D.C. to Baltimore on May 24, 1844. 1845 In 1845, Izrael Staffel demonstrated the Staffel’s calculator at the industrial exhibition in Warsaw. 1847 Thomas Edison is born February 11, 1847. 1847 Alexander Graham Bell is born March 3, 1847. 1847 Siemens is founded. 1849 John Ambrose Fleming is born November 29, 1849. 1850 Charles Flint is born January 24, 1850. 1851 Western Union was founded. 1852 Ada Lovelace passes away November 27, 1852. 1854 Augustus DeMorgan and George Boole formalize a set of logical operations now known as DeMorgan transformations. 1854 Georg Ohm passes away July 6, 1854 (Age: 65) 1856 Nikola Tesla is born July 10, 1856. 1857 The phonautograph (phonograph) is patented March 25, 1857 by Frenchman Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville. The device was capable of transcribing sound to a medium. 1859 The Elevator is patented on August 9, 1959. 1860 Herman Hollerith is born February 29, 1860. 1861 The first known permanent color photograph is taken of a Tartan Ribbon by the photographer Thomas Sutton. To achieve a color image he took a photo of the ribbon three times, each time with a different color, a method developed by James Clerk Maxwell. 1862 Dorr Felt is born March 18, 1862. 1864 George Boole passes away December 8, 1864. 1866 The first successful Trans-Atlantic cable is laid from Ireland to Newfoundland. 1868 Christopher Sholes is issued a patent on July 14, 1868 for a typewriter utilizing the QWERTY layout keyboard still used today. 1870 Charles Thomas passes away March 12, 1870. 1871 Charles Babbage passes away October 18, 1871. 1872 Samuel Morse passes away April 2, 1872. 1873 Georg Scheutz passes away May 22, 1873. 1874 Thomas Watson is born February 17, 1874. 1875 Tanaka Seizo-sho is established in Japan and later merges with another company called shibaura Seisaku-sho to form Tokyo Shibarura Denki. Later this companies name is shortened to the company that we know today, Toshiba. 1875 The company American Telephone and Telegraph Company that later became AT&T is founded. 1876 Scottish-Canadian-American Alexander Graham Bell is often credited as inventing the telephone makes the first call March 10, 1876. 1877 Alexander Bain passes away January 2, 1877. 1877 The microphone is invented in the United States by Emile Berliner. 1877 Thomas Edison invents and announces on November 21, 1877 the first phonograph capable of recording and replaying sounds. 1878 Eadweard Muybridge’s “The Horse In Motion” becomes the first motion picture. 1879 Albert Einstein is born March 14, 1879. 1879 Thomas Edison demos incandescent electric light bulb that lasts 13 1/2 hours October 21, 1879. 1879 James Jacob Ritty patents the worlds first cash register November 4, 1879. 1879 President Rutherford B. Hayes becomes the first president with a phone in the White House and gets the phone number “1.” 1880 ASME is founded. 1881 Emanuel Goldberg is born on August 31, 1881. 1882 The first commercial electric power station becomes operation September 4, 1882. 1882 Fredrik Bull is born December 25, 1882. 1883 Edith Clarke is born February 10, 1883. 1883 American Thomas Edison discovers the Edison effect, where an electric current flows through a vacuum. 1884 Izrael Staffel passes away in 1884. 1885 American Telegraph and Telephone company (AT&T) is incorporated March 3,1885. 1886 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz proves that electricity is transmitted at the speed of light. 1888 Clair Lake is born in 1888. 1888 National Geographic Society is established on January 27, 1888. 1888 Nikola Tesla patents the rotating field motor May 1, 1888 and later sells the rights to George Westinghouse. This invention helps create and transmit AC power and today is still a method for generating and distributing AC power. 1888 William S. Burroughs patents a printing adding machine. 1888 Eastman Kodak is founded. 1888 John Loud gets patent for the ballpoint pen October 30, 1888. 1888 Friedrich Reintzer discovers liquid crystal. 1890 Christopher Sholes passes away February 17, 1890. 1891 Phillips is founded. 1895 Wilhelm Röntgen discovers X-rays November 8, 1895. 1896 Herman Hollerith starts the Tabulating Machine Company, the company later becomes the well-known computer company IBM (International Business machines). 1897 Emil Post is born February 11, 1897. 1897 German scientist Karl Ferdinand Braun invents the Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope. 1897 Thomas Edison patents the Kinetoscope, a motion picture viewer on August 31, 1897. 1898 Alcatel is founded. 1898 Nikola Tesla invents the remote control November 8, 1898. 1890 Vannevar Bush is born March 11, 1890. 1890 Herman Hollerith developed a method for machines to to record and store information onto punch cards to be used for the US census. He later formed the company we know as IBM today. 1891 Giovanni Caselli passes away June 8, 1891. 1899 AT&T acquires assets of American Bell, and becomes the parent company of Bell System. 1899 On September 13, 1899 Henry Bliss becomes the first North American pedestrian to be killed by an automobile. 1899 William D. Middlebrook patents the paper clip on November 9, 1899.

Computer History – 1900 – 1940

YearEvent
1900Howard H. Aiken is born March 8, 1900.
1900Nikola Tesla develops frequency hopping, now known as spread spectrum.
1901The first radio message is sent across the Atlantic Ocean in Morse code.
1901Arthur Samuel is born in 1901.
1901Elisha Gray passes away on January 21, 1901 (age 66)
1901Hubert Cecil Booth receives a patent for the first powered vacuum cleaner August 30, 1901.
1902Walter Brattain is born February 10, 1902.
19023M is founded.
1903Nikola Tesla patents electrical logic circuits called “gates” or “switches”.
1903Wilbur and Orville Wright both take the first flight December 17, 1903.
1903John von Neumann is born December 28, 1903.
1903John Vincent Atanasoff is born October 4, 1903.
1904John Ambrose Fleming experiments with Edison’s diode vacuum tubes and creates the first commercial diode vacuum tube.
1905Derrick Lehmer is born February 23, 1905.
1906The IEC is founded in London England.
1906Arnold I. Dumey is born in 1906.
1906Reynold Johnson is born July 16, 1906.
1906Philo Farnsworth is born August 19, 1906.
1906Grace Hopper is born December 9, 1906.
1907Lee De Frost files patent #879,532 on Jan 29, 1907 for the vacuum tube triode. This is later used as an electronic switch in the first electronic computer.
1907IBM files for its first U.S. patent, #998,631 October 11, 1907.
1908John Bardeen is born May 23, 1908.
1908The film “A Visit To The Seaside” becomes the first film commercially produced in natural color in December of 1908.
1909Edmund Berkeley is born February 22, 1909.
1909Geoffrey Dummer is born February 25, 1909.
1909Antoni Kilinski is born October 20, 1909.
1910William Shockley is born February 13, 1910.
1910Konrad Zuse is born June 22, 1910.
1910Henry Babbage, Charles Babbage‘s youngest son completes a portion of the Analytical Engine and was able to perform basic calculations.
1911Alexey Andreevich Lyapunov is born in 1911.
1911Cuthbert Hurd is born April 5, 1911.
1911Company now known as IBM on is founded June 16, 1911 in the state of New York as the Computing – Tabulating – Recording Company (C-T-R), a consolidation of the Computing Scale Company, and The International Time Recording Company.
1911Frederic Williams is born June 26, 1911.
1911IBM is granted its first patent #998,631 July 25, 1911.
1911Allen Coombs is born October 23, 1911.
1912Alan Turing is born June 23, 1912.
1912David Packard is born September 7, 1912.
1912G. N. Lewis begins work on the lithium battery.
1913William Hewlett is born May 20, 1913.
1913Maurice Wilkes is born June 26, 1913.
1914Cyril Cleverdon is born September 9, 1914.
1914George Dantzig is born November 8, 1914.
1915The first telephone call is made across the continent.
1915Borje Langefors is born May 21, 1915.
1915Arthur Walter Burks is born October 13, 1915.
1916Herbert Simon is born June 15, 1916.
1916Claude Shannon is born April 30, 1916.
1916Christopher Strachey is born November 16, 1916.
1917On September 9, 1917 one of the earliest records of OMG (Oh! My God!) is used by British Admiral John Arbuthnot Fisher when writing to Winston Churchill in a 1917 correspondence.
1917Arthur C. Clark is born December 16, 1917.
1918Alexander L’vovich Brudno is born January 10, 1918.
1918Andrew Booth is born February 11, 1918.
1918Panasonic is founded March 18, 1918.
1918William Eccles and F.W. Jordan build the world’s first flip-flop.
1918Bashir Rameyev is born May 1, 1918.
1918Jay Forrester is born July 14, 1918.
1919Nathan Rochester is born January 14, 1919.
1919Andrew F. Kay is born March 22, 1919.
1919John Adam Presper “Pres” Eckert, Jr. is born April 9, 1919.
1919Olympus is established on October 12, 1919 by Takeshi Yamashita.
1920An Wang is born February 7, 1920.
1920Bob Bemer is born February 8, 1920.
1920First radio broadcasting begins in United States, Pittsburgh, PA.
1921Alexander (Sandy) Shafto Douglas is born May 21, 1921.
1921Forrest Parry is born July 4, 1921.
1921Czech playwright Karel Capek coins the term “robot” in the 1921 play RUR (Rossum’s Universal Robots).
1921The first Radio Shack store is open.
1922MPAA is established.
1922Charles Hamblin is born in 1922.
1922Georgy Adelson-Velsky is born January 8, 1922.
1922Alan Perlis is born April 1, 1922.
1922Keith Uncapher is born April 1, 1922.
1922Alexander Graham Bell passes away August 2, 1922 (age 75)
1923Corrado Böhm is born in 1923.
1923Eugene Kleiner is born May 12, 1923.
1923Edgar Codd is born August 23, 1923.
1923Jack St. Clair Kilby, Nobel Prize winner and inventor of the Integrated Circuit, handheld calculator, and thermal printer is born November 8, 1923.
1923Donald Michie is born November 11, 1923.
1924The Computing – Tabulating – Recording (C-T-R) company is renamed to IBM on February 14, 1924.
1924David Evans is born February 24, 1924.
1924Enid Mumford is born March 6, 1924.
1924Donald Davies is born June 7, 1924.
1924CATV and cable broadcasting begins being used in some European cities.
1924Friedrich Bauer is born June 10, 1924.
1924John Backus is born December 3, 1924.
1924Charles Bachman is born December 11, 1924.
1924Jean Bartik is born December 27, 1924.
1925Douglas Engelbart is born January 30, 1925.
1925Fredrik Bull passes away June 7, 1925 (Age: 43)
1925David Huffman is born August 9, 1925.
1925Seymour Cray is born September 28, 1925.
1926John Kemeny is born May 31, 1926.
1926Fernando Corbató is born July 1, 1926.
1926Carl Petri is born July 12, 1926.
1926The first patent for the semiconductor transistor is created.
1926Arthur Rock is born August 19, 1926.
1927David Wheeler is born February 9, 1927.
1927Allen Newell is born March 19, 1927.
1927Dudley Buck is born April 25, 1927.
1927Theodore Maiman is born July 11, 1927.
1927Marvin Minsky is born August 9, 1927.
1927Bob Evans is born August 19, 1927.
1927John McCarthy is born September 4, 1927.
1927Philo Taylor Farnsworth becomes the first person to successfully transmit a TV signal on September 7, 1927.
1927Robert Noyce is born December 12, 1927.
1928Thomas Kurtz is born February 22, 1928.
1928The Galvin Manufacturing Corporation begins on September 25, 1928, the company will later be known as Motorola.
1928Bernard Galler is born October 3, 1928.
1928Noam Chomsky is born December 7, 1928
1928Jack Tramiel is born December 13, 1928
1928Martin Cooper is born December 26, 1928.
1929Gordon Moore is born January 3, 1929.
1929Herman Hollerith passes away November 17, 1929.
1929Douglas Ross is born December 21, 1929.
1930Einar Stefferud is born January 11, 1930.
1930Edsger Dijkstra is born May 11, 1930.
1930Daniel McCracken is born July 23, 1930.
1930Galvin Manufacturing Corporation Auto radios begin to be sold as an accessory for the automobile. Paul Galvin coins the name Motorola for the company’s new products, linking the ideas of motion and radio.
1930Dorr Felt passes away August 7, 1930.
1930Alan F. Shugart is born September 27, 1930.
1930Citizen is founded.
1931Fletcher Jones is born January 22, 1931.
1931Eiichi Goto is born January 26, 1931.
1931Anthony (Tony) Edgar Sale is born January 30, 1931.
1931Andrei Ershov is born April 19, 1931.
1931Frederick Brooks is born April 19, 1931.
1931Thomas Edison passes away October 18, 1931.
1932Jay Glenn Miner is born May 31, 1932.
1932Frances Allen is born August 4, 1932.
1932ROM-type storage media is introduced.
1932Robert H. Dennard is born September 5, 1932.
1932Dana Scott is born October 11, 1932.
1933Canon is established.
1933Boris Babayan is born December 20, 1933.
1934Edward Fredkin is born January 1, 1934.
1934Charles Hoare is born January 11, 1934
1934Charles Flint passes away February 26, 1934.
1934Robert Moog is born May 23, 1934.
1934Leonard Kleinrock is born June 13, 1934.
1934Gordon Bell is born August 19, 1934.
1934The FCC is established.
1934The US Communication Act goes into place.
1934Carl Sagen is born November 9, 1934.
1935Barry Boehm is born in 1935.
1935The Polygraph machine aka lie detector is used for the first time.
1935Roger Needham is born February 9, 1935.
1935Charles Molnar is born March 14, 1935.
1936Edward Feigenbaum is born January 20, 1936.
1936Germanys Konrad Zuse creates the Z1, one of the first binary digital computers and a machine that could be controlled through a punch tape.
1936While working on a radio, Paul Eisler invents the Printed Circuit Board (PCB).
1936Abraham Lempel is born February 10, 1936.
1936Dvorak receives a patent for the Dvorak keyboard May 12, 1936.
1936Henry F. Phillips receives patent for the Phillips screw and screwdriver July 7, 1936.
1936Andrew Grove is born September 2, 1936.
1936Jerry Sanders is born September 12, 1936.
1936Alan Turing develops the Turing Machine.
1937Charles Peddle is born in 1937.
1937Iowa State Colleges John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry begin work on creating the binary-based ABC (Atanasoft-Berry Computer). Considered by most to be the first electronic digital computer.
1937Dabbala Reddy is born June 13, 1937.
1937Alec Reeves develops PCM.
1937Ted Nelson, who coined the term HTTP is born in 1937.
1937Marcian Hoff is born October 28, 1937.
1938Charles Moore is born in 1938.
1938Gary Starkweather is born in 1938.
1938Donald Knuth is born January 10, 1938.
1938Lynn Conway is born January 10, 1938.
1938The company now known as Hewlett Packard creates its first product the HP 200A.
1938Chester Carlson produces first electrophotographic image October 22, 1938, which later becomes the Xerox machine.
1938Orson Welles and Houseman broadcast H.G. Welles War of the Worlds on the airways October 30th as a Halloween spoof.
1938BBC creates the first science fiction television program.
1938Bob Kahn is born December 23, 1938.
1939Adam Osborne is born March 6, 1939.
1939John Scully is born April 6, 1939.
1939George Stibitz completes the Complex Number Calculator capable of adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing complex numbers. This device provides a foundation for digital computers.
1939The first Radio Shack catalog is published.
1939Craig Barrett is born August 29, 1939
1939Charles Geschke is born September 11, 1939.
1939Iowa State Colleges John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry create a prototype of the binary-based ABC (Atanasoft-Berry Computer).
1939Hewlett Packard is found by William Hewlett and David Packard. The name is decided on the flip of a coin toss.
1939Barbara Liskov is born November 7, 1939.

Computer history – 1940 – 1960

YearEvent
1940The first handheld two-way radio called the “Handy Talkie” is created by Motorola for the U.S. Army Signal Control.
1940Alan Kay is born May 17, 1940.
1940Clive Sinclair is born July 3, 1940
1940John Warnock is born October 6, 1940.
1941David Parnas is born February 10, 1941.
1941Amir Pnueli is born April 22, 1941.
1941August-Wilhelm Scheer is born July 27, 1941.
1941German Konrad Zuse finishes the Z3, a fully program-operational calculating machine. The computer is publically introduced in Berlin May 12, 1941.
1941Dennis Ritchie is born September 9, 1941.
1941Henry Edward Roberts is born September 13, 1941.
1941Chester Carlson gets patent for electric photography more commonly known today as photocopying October 6, 1941.
1941Alan Kotok is born November 9, 1941.
1941Federico Faggin is born December 1, 1941.
1942Brian Kernighan is born in 1942.
1942Edward Tufte is born in 1942.
1942Steven Hawking is born January 8, 1942.
1942Armas Markkula is born February 11, 1942.
1942David Cutler is born March 13, 1942.
1942Gary Kildall is born May 19, 1942.
1942Enrico Fermi designs and creates the world’s first Nuclear Reactor December 2, 1942.
1943John Draper is born in 1943.
1943Nikola Tesla passes away January 7, 1943.
1943Charles Thacker is born February 26, 1943.
1943David S. Morse is born April 15, 1943.
1943Vint Cerf is born June 23, 1943.
1943The Colossus, the first eclectic programmable computer developed by Tommy Flowers is first demonstrated in December 1943.
1943Butler Lampson is born December 23, 1943.
1943ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), the first general-purpose electronic digital calculator begins to be constructed. This computer by most is considered to be the first electronic computer.
1943Dan Noble with Motorola designs a “Walkie Talkie” the first portable FM two-way radio that a backpack version that weighed 35 pounds.
1944Donald Chamberlin is born in 1944.
1944Andrew Tanenbaum is born March 16, 1944.
1944David Clark is born April 7, 1944.
1944Edward Yourdon is born April 30, 1944.
1944Bailey Diffie is born June 5, 1944.
1944The Harvard Mark I computer is officially presented at Harvard University on August 7, 1944. The relay-based Harvard-IBM MARK I a large programmable-controlled calculating machine provides vital calculations for the U.S. Navy. Grace Hopper becomes its programmer.
1944Larry Ellison is born August 17, 1944.
1944The first binary, and partially programmable computer, Colossus, was created at Bletchley Park.
1944Steve Crocker is born October 15, 1944.
1944Abhay Bhushan is born November 23, 1944.
1945Lee Felsenstein is born in 1945.
1945Patent is filed for the Harvard Mark I digital computer on February 8, 1945.
1945John Ambrose Fleming passes away April 18, 1945.
1945Adele Goldberg is born July 7, 1945.
1945Edmund Clarke is born July 27, 1945.
1945The Von Neumann Architecture and a description of a general purpose electronic digital computer with a stored programs is introduced in John von Neumann’s report of the EDVAC.
1945The term bug as computer bug was termed by Grace Hopper when programming the MARK II.
1945The first ballpoint pen goes on sale in New York for $12.50 on October 30, 1945.
1946Freddie Williams applies for a patent on his cathode-ray tube (CRT) storing device in December. The device that later became known as the Williams tube is capable of storing between 512 and 1024 bits of data.
1946Konrad Zuse writes the first algorithmic programming language called ‘Plankalkül’.
1946ENIAC computer completed.
1946Brooklyn New York’s Flatbush National Bank becomes the first bank to issue a credit card in 1946.
1946Robert Metcalfe is born April 7, 1946.
1946The Selectron tube capable of storing 256 bits of information begins development.
1946Andrew Chi-Chih Yao is born December 24, 1946.
19471947 Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray Mann. file patent #2,455,992 describing one of the first computer games played on a CRT January 25, 1947.
1947Robert Cailliau is born January 26, 1947.
1947Freddie Williams memory system known as the Williams tube is now in working order.
1947Kenneth Arnold makes the first widely reported UFO sighting on June 24, 1947.
1947Ben Shneiderman is born August 21, 1947.
1947Edward Shortliffe is born August 28, 1947.
1947Jay Forrester extends the life of a vacuum tube from 500 to 500,000 hours.
1947ISO is founded.
1947The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is established September 18, 1947.
1947David Patterson is born November 16, 1947.
1947John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley invent the first transistor at the Bell Laboratories on December 23, 1947.
1948IBM builds the SSEC (Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator). The computer contains 12,000 tubes.
1948John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley patent the first transistor.
1948Andrew Donald Booth creates magnetic drum memory, which is two inches long and two inches wide and capable of holding 10 bits per inch.
1948William Gibson is born March 17, 1948.
1948Scott Fahlman is born March 21, 1948.
1948The 604 multiplying punch, based upon the vacuum tube technology, is produced by IBM.
1948Carol Bartz is born August 29, 1948.
1948Charles Simonyi is born in September 10, 1948
1948The television begins to divert radio audiences.
1949David Bradley is born in 1949.
1949Claude Shannon builds the first machine that plays chess at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
1949The concept of a computer program capable of reproducing itself was first mentioned by John von Neumann in his 1949 “Theory of self-reproducing automata” essay.
1949The Harvard-MARK III, the first of the MARK machines to use an internally stored program and indirect addressing, goes into operations again under the direction of Howard Aiken.
1949The first computer company, Electronic Controls Company is founded by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, the same individuals who helped create the ENIAC computer.
1949The EDSAC performs its first calculation on May 6, 1949.
1949Alain Glavieux is born July 4, 1949.
1949John Chambers is born August 23, 1949.
1949Popular Mechanics predicts: “Computers in the future may weigh no more than 1.5 tons.”
1949The small-scale electronic machine (SSEM) is fully operational at Manchester University.
1949The Australian computer CSIRAC is first ran.
1950Bertrand Meyer is born in 1950.
1950Dave Boggs is born in 1950.
1950Douglas Lenat is born in 1950.
1950The United States Government receives the UNIVAC 1101 or ERA 1101 in 1950. This computer is considered to be the first computer that was capable of storing and running a program from memory.
1950The first electronic computer is created in Japan by Hideo Yamachito.
1950Konrad Zuse completes and sells the Z4 on July 12, 1950, becoming the first commercial computer.
1950Steve Wozniak is born August 11, 1950.
1950Alan Turing publishes his paper Computing Machinery and Intelligence in October. This paper helps create the Turing Test.
1950The NICAD battery begins its commercial use.
1950Mitchell Kapor is born November 1, 1950.
1950Bjarne Stroustrup is born December 30, 1950.
1951Radia Perlman is born in 1951.
1951The first business computer, the Lyons Electronic Office (LEO) is completed by T. Raymond Thompson, John Simmons and their team at Lyons Co.
1951The first commercial computer, the “First Ferranti MARK I” is now functional at Manchester University.
1951The first ISO is published with the title, “Standard reference temperature for industrial length measurement.”
1951UNIVAC I was introduced.
1951The EDVAC begins performing basic tasks.
1951Dean Kamen is born April 5, 1951.
1951Jay Forrester applies for a patent for magnetic core memory, the first random access memory (RAM) May 11, 1951.
1951The Nixie tube is first introduced.
1951Grace Hopper develops A-0, the first Arithmetic language.
1951Dan Bricklin is born July 16, 1951.
1951Bill Atkinson is born in 1951.
1952Fred Baker is born in 1952.
1952Complaint is filed against IBM for Monopolistic practices on January 1952.
1952Alan Cooper is born June 3, 1952.
1952Adi Shamir is born July 6, 1952.
1952Geoffrey Dummer a British radar engineer introduces the concept of the integrated circuit at a tech conference in the United States.
1952Fairly reliable working magnetic drum memories for use in computers begin to be sold by Andrew Donald Booth and his father.
1952RIAA is established.
1952The first ASR device was used to recognize single digits spoken by a user (it was not computer driven).
1952Alexander Sandy Douglas created the first graphical computer game of Tic-Tac-Toe on an EDSAC known as “OXO.”
1952The National Security Agency (NSA) is formed November 4, 1952.
1952Craig Newmark is born December 6, 1952
1953David Deutsch is born in 1953.
1953James Martin is born in 1953.
1953IBM introduces the 701 to the public April 7, 1953. The 701 is IBM’s first electric computer and first mass produced computer.
1953The UNIVAC predicts the presidential election during a televised news broadcast.
1953A magnetic memory smaller and faster than existing vacuum tube memories is built at MIT.
1953Paul Allen is born January 21, 1953.
1953Craig Reynolds is born March 15, 1953.
1953Richard Stallman is born March 16, 1953.
1953Andy Hertzfeld is born April 6, 1953.
1953The IBM 701 becomes available to the scientific community. A total of 19 are produced and sold.
1953Florian Brody is born October 31, 1953.
1953The Colgate Comedy Hour on N.B.C. becomes the first TV show to broadcast in color on November 22, 1953.
1954IBM produces and markets the IBM 650. More than 1,800 of these computers are sold in an eight-year span, with 120 installations in the first year.
1954Daniel Kottke is born April 4, 1954.
1954Tim O’Reilly is born June 6, 1954.
1954Alan Turing passes away June 7, 1954.
1954The USSR’s Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant opens June 27, 1954 and becomes the first Nuclear power plant to generate electricity.
1954The first version of FORTRAN (formula translator) is published by IBM.
1954Texas Instruments announces the start of commercial production of silicon transistors.
1954IBM becomes the first company to translate Russian into English using a computer.
1954Larry Wall is born September 27, 1954.
1954CERN is established on September 29, 1954.
1954IBM introduces its first calculating machine that uses solid-state transistors instead of vacuum tubes October 7, 1954.
1954The first commercially produced transistor radio, the Regency TR-1 is announced October 18, 1954.
1954Ken Williams is born October 30, 1954,
1954William Joy is born November 8, 1954.
1955Steve Jobs is born February 24, 1955.
1955Grady Booch is born February 27, 1955.
1955MIT introduces the Whirlwind machine March 8, 1955, a revolutionary computer that was the first digital computer with magnetic core RAM and real-time graphics.
1955Tom Watson, IBM’s president is featured on the front of Time Magazine March 28, 1955.
1955Albert Einstein passes away on April 18, 1955.
1955Eric Schmidt is born April 27, 1955.
1955John McCarthy coins the term Artificial Intelligence (AI) in 1955 at Dartmouth University.
1955Dartmouth Colleges John McCarthy coins the term “artificial intelligence.”
1955Dave Winer is born May 2, 1955.
1955Tim Bernes-Lee is born June 8, 1955.
1955Donna Dubinsky is born July 4, 1955.
1955Andreas (Andy) von Bechtolsheim is born September 30, 1955.
1955William (Bill) H. Gates is born October 28, 1955.
1955IBM introduces the first IBM 702.
1955Bell Labs introduces its first transistor computer. Transistors are faster, smaller and create less heat than traditional vacuum tubs, making these computers more reliable and efficient.
1955The ENIAC is turned off for the last time. Its estimated to have done more arithmetic than the entire human race had done prior to 1945.
1956John von Neumann is presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Dwight Eisenhower on February 15, 1956.
1956Alexey Leonidovich Pajitnov is born on March 14, 1956.
1956Steve Ballmer is born March 24, 1956.
1956The TX-O (Transistorized Experimental computer) and first transistorized computer is demonstrated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
1956Tim Paterson is born June 1, 1956.
1956Thomas Watson passes away June 19, 1956.
1956Dr. Robert Adler of Zenith invents the first cordless TV remote control in 1956.
1956John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley are awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for their work on the transistor.
1956On September 13, 1956 the IBM 305 RAMAC is the first computer to be shipped with a hard drive that contained 50 24-inch platters and was capable of storing 5 million characters and weighed a ton.
1956Wen Tsing Chow develops PROM.
1956The programming language FORTRAN is introduced to the public October 15, 1956.
1956Leo Laporte is born November 29, 1956.
1957Carl Sassenrath is born in 1957.
1957IBM announces it will no longer be using vacuum tubes and releases its first computer that had 2000 transistors.
1957Fred Cohen is born in 1957.
1957Barry Leiba is born in 1957.
1957John von Neumann passes away February 8, 1957 (age of 53)
1957Mark Dean is born March 2, 1957.
1957Emil Post passes away on April 21, 1954 (age 57)
1957Jeff Hawkins is born June 1, 1957.
1957Bruce Eckel is born July 8, 1957.
1957Fairchild Semiconductor is founded by Andy Grove, Eugene Kleiner, Gordon Moore, Jerry Sanders, Robert Noyce.
1957Digital Equipment Corporation is founded by Kenneth Olsen. The company will later become a major network computer manufacturer.
1957Russia launches the first artificial satellite, named Sputnik on October 4, 1957.
1957In response to Sputnik the United States creates the new agency ARPA.
1957Casio is established.
1957Eric Raymond is born December 4, 1957.
1958Shafi Goldwasser is born in 1958.
1958Clair Lake passes away in 1958.
1958The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics is renamed to National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
1958Control Data Corporation introduces Seymour Cray’s 1604 for $1.5 Million, half the cost of the IBM computer.
1958NEC builds its first computer the NEAC 1101.
1958William Higinbotham created the first video game called: Tennis for Two.
1958The programming language FORTRAN II is created. Later FORTRAN III is created but never released to the public.
1958President Eisenhowers Christmas address is the first voice transmission from a satellite.
1958Steve Case is born August 21, 1958.
1958The first integrated circuit is first developed by Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor and Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments. The first IC was demonstrated on September 12, 1958.
1959Feng-hsiung Hsu is born in 1959.
1959Danese Cooper is born January 19, 1959.
1959Hitachi is founded.
1959The Harvard-MARK I is turned off for the last time.
1959Dudley Buck passes away May 21, 1959 (Age: 32).
1959Robert Noyce creates an integrated circuit with component connections made of aluminum lines on silicon.
1959The Luna 2 becomes the first human made object to land on the moon on September 14, 1959.
1959Edith Clarke passes away on October 29, 1959 (age 76)
1959Leonard Kleinrock starts to developing packetization.
1959Motorola produces the two-way, fully transistorized mobile radio.
1959Panasonic is founded.
1959David Culler is born November 12, 1959.

Computer History 1960 – 1980

YearEvent
19602,000 computers are in use in the United states.
1960IBM develops the first automatic mass-production facility for transistors in New York.
1960Will Wright is born January 20, 1960.
1960IBMs 1400 series machines, aimed at the business market begin to be distributed.
1960The first integrated circuits (IC’s) begin being sold for $120.00 and are chosen to be used on the Gemini spacecraft.
1960The Common Business-Oriented Language (COBOL) programming language is invented.
1960Psychologist Frank Rosenblatt creates the Mark I Perception, which has an “eye” that can learn to identify its ABCs.
1960NASA launches TIROS, the first weather satellite into space.
1960Bob Bemer introduced the backslash.
1960Physicist Theodore Maiman creates the first laser May 16, 1960.
1960AT&T introduces the dataphone and the first known MODEM.
1960RS-232 is introduced by EIA.
1960IFIP is founded.
1960Digital introduces the PDP-1 the first minicomputer.
1960Tim Cook is born November 1, 1960.
1960Anders Hejlsberg is born in December of 1960.
1961Brendan Eich is born in 1961.
1961Hewlett-Packard stock is accepted by the New York Stock Exchange for national and international trading.
1961Ed Colligan is born March 4, 1961.
1961Leonard Kleinrock publishes his first paper entitled “Information Flow in Large Communication Nets” is published May 31, 1961.
1961Fairchild Semiconductor introduces the first commercially available integrated circuits (IC’s).
1961The first IBM Selectric typewriter is released July 27, 1961.
1961General Motors puts the first industrial robot the 4,000 pound Unimate to work in a New Jersey factory.
1961Accredited Standards Committee is founded, this committee later becomes the INCITS.
1961P.Z. Ingerman develops a thunk.
1961ECMA is established.
1961The first transcontinental telegraph line began operation October 24, 1961.
1961The programming language FORTRAN IV is created.
1962Steve Russell creates “SpaceWar!” and releases it in February 1962. This game is considered the first game intended for computers.
1962Philippe Kahn is born March 16, 1962.
1962Leonard Kleinrock releases his paper talking about packetization.
1962AT&T places first commercial communications Satellite, the Telstar I into orbit.
1962Paul Baran suggests transmission of data using fixed size message blocks.
1962J.C.R. Licklider becomes the first Director of IPTO and gives his vision of a galactic network.
1962Philips invents the compact audio cassette tape.
1962The NASA rocket, the Mariner II, is equipped with a Motorola transmitter on it’s trip to Venus.
1962Sharp is founded.
1963IEEE is founded.
1963The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is developed to standardize data exchange among computers.
1963Kevin Mitnick is born August 6, 1963.
1963Bell Telephone introduces the push button telephone November 18, 1963.
1963On December 7, 1963 during a Army-Navy football game on CBS the first instant replay is shown on TV.
1964Jeff Bezos is born January 12, 1964.
1964Dartmouth Universitys John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz develop Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Language (BASIC) and run it for the first time May 1, 1964.
1964Baran publishes reports “On Distributed Communications.”
1964AT&T starts the practice of monitoring telephone calls in the hopes of identifying phreakers.
1964The TRANSIT system becomes operational on U.S. Polaris submarines. This system later becomes known as GPS.
1964On April 7, 1964 IBM introduces its System/360, the first of its computers to use interchangeable software and peripheral equipment.
1964Leonard Kleinrock publishes his first book on packet nets entitled Communication Nets: Stochastic Message Flow and Design.
1964The first computerized encyclopedia is invented at the Systems Development Corporation.
1964Marc Benioff is born September 25, 1964.
1964Eric Bina is born in October 1964.
1964Tsutomu Shimomura is born October 23, 1964.
1964Alan Emtage is born November 27, 1964.
1965Robert Scoble is born January 18, 1965.
1965Ted Nelson coins the term “hypertext,” which refers to text that is not necessarily linear.
1965Hypermedia is coined by Ted Nelson.
1965Digital Equipment Company’s first successful minicomputer, the PDP-8 is introduced. The computer sold for $18,000 and over 50,000 are sold.
1965Donald Davies coins the word “Packet.”
1965Engineers at TRW Corporation develop a Generalized Information Retrieval Language and System that later develops to the Pick Database Management System used today on Unix and Windows systems.
1965Michael Dell is born February 23, 1965.
1965Millions watch for the first time a space probe crashing into the moon on March 24, 1965.
1965Texas Instruments develops the transistor-transistor logic (TTL).
1965Lawrence G. Roberts with MIT performs the first long distant dial-up connection between a TX-2 computer n Massachusetts and a Q-32 in California.
1965Gordon Moore makes an observation in a April 19, 1965 paper that later becomes widely known as Moore’s Law.
1965Robert Tappan Morris is born November 8, 1965.
1966MITs Joseph Weizenbaum writes a program called Eliza, that makes the computer act as a psychotherapist.
1966Lawrence G. Roberts and Tom Marill publish a paper about their earlier success at connecting over dial-up.
1966David Filo is born April 20, 1966.
1966Stephen Gray establishes the first personal computer club, the Amateur Computer Society.
1966Robert Taylor joins ARPA and brings Larry Roberts there to develop ARPANET.
1966The programming language BCPL is created.
1966The original Star Trek is shown for the first time on United States NBC September 8, 1966.
1967IBM creates the first floppy disk.
1967The first CES is held in New York from the July 24 to 28, 1967.
1967Donald Davies creates 1-node NPL packet net.
1967Wes Clark suggests use of a minicomputer for network packet switch.
1967The LOGO programming language is developed and is later known as “turtle graphics,” a simplified interface useful for teaching children computers.
1967Donald Davies creates 1-node NPL packet net.
1967Ralph Baer creates “Chase”, the first video game that was capable of being played on a television.
1967HES is developed at the Brown University.
1967Nokia is formed.
1967GPS becomes available for commercial use.
1967ISACA is established.
1968Intel Corporation is founded by Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore.
1968Hewlett Packard began marketing the first mass-marketed PC, the HP 9100A.
1968The first Network Working Group (NWG) meeting is held.
1968Bob Propst invents the office cubicle.
1968Larry Roberts publishes ARPANET program plan on June 3, 1968.
1968On June 4, 1968 Dr. Robert Dennard at the IBM T.J. Watson Research center is granted U.S. patent 3,387,286 describing a one-transistor DRAM cell.
1968First RFP for a network goes out.
1968Alan Cox is born July 22, 1968.
1968UCLA is selected to be the first node on the Internet as we know it today and serve as the Network Msmnt Center.
1968The movie “2001: A Space Odyssey” is released.
1968SHRDLU is created.
1968Seiko markets a miniature printer for use with calculators.
1968Sony invents Trinitron.
1968Jerry Yang is born November 6, 1968.
1968Douglas Engelbart publicly demonstrates Hypertext on the NLS on December 9, 1968.
1969Control Data Corporation led by Seymour Cray, release the CDC 7600, considered by most to be the first supercomputer.
1969AT&T Bell Laboratories develop Unix.
1969The first totally artificial heart is placed into Haskell Carp on April 4, 1969 for 64 hours until a donor heart became available.
1969Steve Crocker releases RFC #1 on April 7, 1979 introducing the Host-to-Host and talking about the IMP software.
1969Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) is founded on May 1, 1969.
1969Adrian Carmack is born May 5, 1969.
1969Gary Starkweather, while working with Xerox invents the laser printer.
1969UCLA puts out a press release introducing the public to the Internet on July 3, 1969.
1969At 4:17 Eastern Time the Apollo 11 space craft lands on the moon and Neil Armstrong becomes the first human to walk on the moon.
1969Intel sells its first commercial product, the 3101 Schottky bipolar 64-bit SRAM chip.
1969Ralph Baer files for a US Patent on August 21, 1969 that describes playing games on a television and would later be a part of the Magnavox Odyssey.
1969On August 29, 1969 the first network switch and the first piece of network equipment (called “IMP”, which is short for Interface Message Processor) is sent to UCLA.
1969The first U.S. bank ATM went into service at 9:00am on September 2, 1969.
1969On September 2, 1969 the first data moves from UCLA host to the IMP switch.
1969Charley Kline a UCLA student tries to send “login”, the first message over ARPANET at 10:30 p.m on October 29, 1969. The system transmitted “l” and then “o” but then crashed making today the first day a message was sent over the Internet and the first network crash.
1969CompuServe, the first commercial online service, is established.
1969Linus Torvalds is born December 28, 1969.
1970Western Digital is founded.
1970Steve Crocker and UCLA team releases NCP.
1970Intel announces the 1103, a new DRAM memory chip containing more than 1,000 bits of information. This chip is classified as random-access memory (RAM).
1970The Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) is established to perform basic computing and electronic research.
1970The Forth programming language is created by Charles H. Moore.
1970Henry Edward Roberts establishes Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS) in 1970.
1970U.S. Department of Defense develops ada a computer programming language capable of designing missile guidance systems.
1970The Sealed Lead Acid battery begins being used for commercial use.
1970Jack Kilby is awarded the National Medal of Science.
1970Patrick Norton is born June 26, 1970.
1970Tom Merritt is born June 28, 1970.
1970Philips introduces the VCR.
1970Centronics introduces the first dot matrix printer.
1970Emanuel Goldberg passes away on September 13, 1970 (age 89)
1970Tom Anderson is born on November 8, 1970.
1970Douglas Engelbart gets a patent for the first computer mouse on November 17, 1970.
1970IBM introduces the System/370, which included the use of Virtual Memory and utilized memory chips instead of magnetic core technology.
1971Philo Farnsworth passes away.
1971The first 8″ floppy diskette drive was introduced.
1971Ray Tomlinson sends the first e-mail, the first messaging system to send messages across a network to other users.
1971The computer gets a voice, as the first computer is demonstrated with a synthesized voice.
1971Bob Bemer publishes world’s first warning on Year 2000 problem in 1971.
1971The first laser printer is developed at Xerox PARC.
1971FTP is first purposed April 16, 2012 by Abhay Bhushan of MIT in RFC 114.
1971IBM introduces its first speech recognition program capable of recognizing about 5,000 words.
1971Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney create the first arcade game called “Computer Space.”
1971SMC is founded.
1971Marc Andreessen is born July 9, 1971.
1971Steve Wozniak and Bill Fernandez develop a computer called the Cream Soda Computer.
1971Schadt and Helfrich develop twisted nematic.
1971Niklaus Wirth invents the Pascal programming language.
1971Intel with the help of Ted Hoff introduces the first microprocessor, the Intel 4004 on November 15, 1971. The 4004 had 2,300 transistors, performed 60,000 operations per second (OPS), addressed 640 bytes of memory, and cost $200.00.
1971First edition of Unix released November 03, 1971. The first edition of the “Unix PROGRAMMER’S MANUAL [by] K. Thompson [and] D. M. Ritchie.” It includes over 60 commands like: b (compile B program); boot (reboot system); cat (concatenate files); chdir (change working directory); chmod (change access mode); chown (change owner); cp (copy file); ls (list directory contents); mv (move or rename file); roff (run off text); wc (get word count); who (who is one the system). The main thing missing was pipes.
1972Erik Selberg is born in 1972.
1972Evan Williams is born March 31, 1972.
1972Intel introduces the 8008 processor on April 1, 1972.
1972The first video game console called the Magnavox Odyssey is demonstrated May 24, 1972 and later released by Magnavox and sold for $100.00 USD.
1972ARPA is renamed to DARPA.
1972The programming language FORTRAN 66 is created.
1972Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs invents the C programming language.
1972Edsger Dijkstra is awarded the ACM Turning Award.
1972The compact disc is invented in the United States.
1972Cray Research Inc. is founded.
1972Atari releases Pong, the first commercial video game on November 29, 1972.
1972First public demo of ARPANET.
1972Whetstone is first released in November 1972.
1972Fletcher Jones passes away November 7, 1972 (Age: 41)
1972Norm Abramson’ Alohanet connected to ARPANET: packet radio nets.
1973The architecture used with the CP/M operating system becomes the standard for the next eight years until MS-DOS is introduced.
1973Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn design TCP during 1973 and later publish it with the help of Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine in December of 1974 in RFC 675.
1973Howard H. Aiken passes away march 14, 1973.
1973Larry page is born March 26, 1973.
1973ARPA deploys SATNET the first international connection.
1973Alexey Andreevich Lyapunov passes away in 1973.
1973Dr. Martin Cooper makes the first handheld cellular phone call to Dr. Joel S. Engel April 3, 1973.
1973Robert Metcalfe creates the Ethernet at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) on May 22, 1973.
1973The first VoIP call is made.
1973IBM introduces its 3660 Supermarket System, which uses a laser to read grocery prices and UPC bar codes.
1973Interactive laser discs make their debut.
1973The first Landsat satellite is launched July 23, 1973.
1973Chris Pirillo is born July 26, 1973.
1973The ICCP is founded.
1973Sergey Brin is born August 21, 1973.
1973U.S. Patent 3,906,166 is filed October 17, 1973 for a radio telephone system, which helps paves the way for what we know today as a cell phone.
1973Judge awards John Vincent Atanasoff as the inventor of the first electronic digital computer on October 19, 1973.
1974Jeri Ellsworth is born in 1974.
1974Christopher Stone is born March 10, 1974.
1974Intel’s improved microprocessor chip is introduced April 1, 1974, the 8080 becomes a standard in the computer industry.
1974The U.S. government starts its antitrust suit against AT&T and doesn’t end until 1982 when AT&T agrees to divest itself of the wholly owned Bell operating companies that provided local exchange service.
1974John Draper aka Captain Crunch discovers a breakfast cereal children’s whistle creates a 2600 hertz tone. Using this whistle and a blue box he’s able to successfully get into AT&T‘s phone network and make free calls anywhere in the world.
1974The first Toshiba floppy disk drive is introduced.
1974Vannevar Bush passes away June 28, 1974.
1974The IBM MVS operating system is introduced.
1974A commercial version of ARPANET known as Telenet is introduced and considered by many to be the first Internet Service Provider (ISP).
1974IBM develops SEQUEL, which today is known as SQL today.
1974IBM introduces SNA.
1974Charles Simonyi coins the term WYSIWYG.
1974Altair 8800 kits start going on sale December 19, 1974.
1975Bill Gates and Paul Allen Establish Microsoft April 4, 1975.
1975Christopher Strachey passes away May 18, 1975.
1975Bill Gates, Paul Allen, and Monte Davidoff announce Altair BASIC.
1975MITS ships one of the first PCs, the Altair 8800 with one kilobyte (KB) of memory. The computer is ordered as a mail-order kit for $397.00.
1975A flight simulator demo is first shown.
1975Paul Allen and Bill Gates write the first computer language program for personal computers, which is a form of BASIC designed for the Altair. Gates later drops out of Harvard and founds Microsoft with Allen.
1975Molly Wood is born May 23, 1975.
1975Marissa Mayer is born May 30, 1975.
1975Xerox exits the computer market on July 21, 1975.
1975The Byte Shop, one of the first computer stores, open in California.
1975The IBM 5100 becomes the first portable computer, which was released on September 1975. The computer weighed 55 pounds and had a five inch CRT display, tape drive, 1.9MHz PALM processor, and 64KB of RAM.
1975EPSON enters the US market.
1975Gina Trapani is born September 19, 1975.
1975Bram Cohen is born October 12, 1975.
1975IMS Associates begin shipping its IMSAI 8080 computer kits on December 16, 1975.
1976On February 3, 1976 David Bunnell publishes an article by Bill Gates complaining about software piracy in his Computer Notes Altair newsletter.
1976Intel introduces the 8085 processor on March 1976.
1976Steve Wozniak designs the first Apple, the Apple I computer in 1976, later Wozniak and Steve Jobs co-found Apple Computers on April Fools day.
1976The first 5.25-inch floppy disk is invented.
1976Microsoft introduces an improved version of BASIC.
1976The First Annual World Altair Computer convention and first convention of computer hobbyists is held in New Mexico on March 26, 1976.
1976The term meme is first defined in the book The Selfish Gene by Richard Dawkins.
1976The first Public Key Cryptography known as the Deffie-Hellman is developed by Whitfield Deffie and Martin Hellman.
1976The Intel 8086 is introduced June 8, 1976.
1976Amber MacArthur is born June 27, 1976.
1976Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak demonstrate the first Apple computer at the Home Brew Computer Club.
1976The NASA Viking 2 lands on Mars September 3, 1976 and transmits pictures and soil analysis.
1976Professor at Bowling Green State University first uses the term ‘Computer Ethics‘.
1976The original Apple computer company logo of Sir Isaac Newton sitting under an apple tree is replaced by the well known rainbow colored apple with a bite out of it.
1976Matrox is founded.
1976DES is approved as a federal standard in November 1976.
1976Jack Dorsey is born November 19, 1976.
1976Microsoft officially drops the hyphen in Micro-soft and trademarks the Microsoft name November 26, 1976.
1976In December of 1976 Bill Gates drops out of Harvard to devote all his time to Microsoft.
1977Apple Computer becomes Incorporated January 4, 1977
1977Ward Christansen develops a popular modem transfer modem called Xmodem.
1977Apple Computer Inc., Radio Shack, and Commodore all introduce mass-market computers.
1977Kevin Rose is born February 21, 1977.
1977Derek Gehl is born March 10, 1977.
1977The First West Coast Computer Faire in San Francisco’s Brooks Civic Auditorium is held on April 15, 1977.
1977Peter G. Neuman coins the term peopleware.
1977Apple Computers Apple II, the first personal computer with color graphics is demonstrated.
1977ARCNET the first commercially network is developed
1977Zoom Telephonics is founded.
1977Commodore announces that the PET (Personal Electronic Transactor) will be a self-contained unit, with a CPU, RAM, ROM, keyboard, monitor and tape recorder all for $495.00
1977Microsoft sells the license for BASIC to Radio Shack and Apple and introduces the program in Japan.
1977Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope is released May 25, 1977.
1977Apple releases the Apple II series of computers June 10, 1977.
1977Chad Hurley is born July 21, 1977.
1977Tandy announces it will manufacture the TRS-80 Model 1, the first mass-produced computer on August 3, 1977. This computer is commonly referred to as the Trash 80.
1977Frederic Williams passes away August 11, 1977 (Age: 66)
1977NASA Voyager 1 is launched into space September 5, 1977.  This spacecraft is the farthest man-made object in space.
1977BSD is introduced.
1978Dan Bricklin creates VisiCalc.
1978The first BBS is put online February 16, 1978.
1978TCP splits into TCP/IP driven by Danny Cohen, David Reed, and John Shoch to support real-time traffic. This allows the creation of UDP.
1978Epson introduces the TX-80, which becomes the first successful dot matrix printer for personal computers.
1978OSI is developed by ISO.
1978Roy Trubshaw and Richard Bartle create the first MUD.
1978The first spam e-mail was sent by Gary Thuerk in May 1, 1978 an employee at Digital who was advertising the new DECSYSTEM-2020, 2020T, 2060, AND 2060T on ARPAnet.
1978Microsoft introduces a new version of COBOL.
1978Peter Sunde is born September 13, 1978.
1978Louise Joy Brown born July 25, 1978, becomes the first human baby born as a result of using in vitro fertilization (IVF).
1978The 5.25-inch floppy disk becomes an industry standard.
1978In June of 1978 Apple introduces Apple DOS 3.1, the first operating system for the Apple computers.
1978Ward Christensen and Randy Seuss have the first major microcomputer bulletin board up and running in Chicago.
1978ETA is founded.
1978Steve Chen is born in 1978.
1978John Shoch and Jon Hupp at Xerox PARC develop the first worm.
1979Jawed Karim is born in 1979.
1979Robert Williams of Michigan became the first human to be killed by a robot at the Ford Motors company on January 25, 1979. Resulting in a $10 million dollar lawsuit.
1979Software Arts Incorporated VisiCalc becomes the first electronic spreadsheet and business program for PCs.
1979Epson releases the MX-80 which soon becomes an industry standard for dot matrix printers.
1979SCO is founded.
1979Sierra is founded.
1979The Intel 8088 is released on June 1, 1979.
1979Markus Persson is born June 1, 1979.
1979Bit 3 is founded.
1979Texas Instruments enters the computer market with the TI 99/4 personal computer that sells for $1,500.
1979Hayes markets its first modem that becomes the industry standard for modems.
1979Atari introduces a coin-operated version of Asteroids.
1979More than half a million computers are in use in the United States.
19793COM is founded by Robert Metcalfe.
1979Oracle introduces the first commercial version of SQL.
1979The programming language DoD-1 is officially changed to Ada.
1979The Motorola 6800, an 8-bit processor is released and is later chosen as the processor for the Apple Macintosh.
1979Phoenix is founded.
1979VMS is introduced.
1979CompuServe becomes the first commercial online service offering dial-up connection to anyone September 24, 1979.
1979Usenet is first started.
1979A technology consulting firm in Washington D.C. known as Network Solutions is established.
1979Bit 3 is established.
1979Seagate is founded.
1979Saitek is founded
1979Oracle is founded.
1979Novell Data System is established as an operating system developer. Later in 1983 the company becomes the Novell company.

Computer history – 1980 – 1990

YearEvent
1980On January 3, Hewlett Packard introduces its HP-85. A microcomputer with 16kB of RAM and a 5-inch CRT display.
1980IBM introduces RISC.
1980IBM hires Paul Allen and Bill Gates to create an operating system for a new PC. The pair buy the rights to a simple operating system manufactured by Seattle Computer Products and use it as a template. IBM allows the two to keep the marketing rights to the operating system, called DOS.
1980IBM hires Microsoft to develop versions of BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, and Pascal for the PC being developed by IBM.
1980Microsoft licenses Unix and starts to develop a PC version, XENIX.
1980The programming language FORTRAN 77 is created.
1980The first Tandy Color computer is introduced.
1980AST is founded.
1980Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back is released May 21, 1980.
1980Steve Ballmer joins Microsoft on June 11, 1980, and became Microsoft’s 30th employee, the first business manager hired by Bill Gates.
1980Atari becomes the first company to register a Copyright for two computer games “Asteroids” and “Lunar Landar” on June 17, 1980.
1980FIC is founded.
1980Iomega is established.
1980Quantum is founded.
1980ARPANET experiences first major network crash causing it to go down for four hours October 27, 1980.
1980Shawn Fanning is born November 22, 1980.
1981Jeff Dailey, a 19-year old becomes the first person to die from computer gaming after dying from a heart attack after posting a score of 16,660 on Berzerk.
1981Satya Pal Asija receives the first U.S. patent for a computer software program May 26, 1981.
1981Diskeeper is founded on July 22, 1981.
1981Microsoft buys the rights for QDOS from Seattle Computer Products (SCP) for $25,000 on July 27, 1981.
1981MS-DOS 1.0 was released August, 1981.
1981American National Standards Institute more commonly known as ANSI was founded.
1981IBM joins the computer race by announcing the IBM Personal Computer on August 12, 1981, which runs the new MS-DOS operating system and has a starting price of $1,565.
1981Kermit is developed at the Columbia University in New York
1981Xerox introduces the graphical Star workstation. This computer greatly influences the development of Apples future computer models, Lisa and Macintosh, as well as Microsoft‘s Windows.
1981VHDL is proposed and begins development.
1981VMEbus is developed.
1981Hayes Introduces the Smartmodem 300 with its standard setting AT command set and an operating speed of 300 bits per second.
1981Adam Osborne introduces the Osborne I, the first successful portable computer, which weighs 25 pounds.
1981Hewlett-Packard Superchip the first 32-bit chip is introduced.
1981Commodore ships the VIC-20, which later becomes the worlds most popular computer costing only $299.95.
1981Logitech is founded in Apples, Switzerland.
1981Adaptec is founded.
1981BITNET is founded.
1981Gemlight is founded.
1981Hayes releases the Smartmodem 1200 with transfer rates of 1,200 bits per second.
1981CTX is established.
1981IBM joins the computer race by introducing IBM 5150 PC that used the 4.77-MHz Intel 8088 processor, 16 kB base memory, and PC-DOS (MS-DOS) for the OS.
1981Kensington is founded.
1981MG Siegler is born November 2, 1981.
1982Peter Norton creates Norton Utilities.
1982Sony releases its first Trinitron monitor.
1982SGI is founded.
1982The Intel 80286 is introduced February 1, 1982.
1982Maxtor is founded.
1982Hercules is founded.
1982Labtec is founded.
1982Disney releases the movie Tron on July 9, 1982, the first movie to use computer generated special effects.
1982Number Nine is founded.
1982Symantec is founded.
1982A Philips factory in Germany creates the world’s first compact disc August 17, 1982.
1982Jack Kilby is inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.
1982Microsoft releases FORTRAN for the PC COBOL for MS-DOS, and Multiplan for the Apple II and CP/M machines.
1982Microsoft establishes a subsidiary in England to begin foreign sales efforts.
1982WordPerfect Corporation introduces WordPerfect 1.0 a word processing program that will become one of the computer markets most popular word processing program.
1982The first luggable computer is introduced.
1982Sun is incorporated in February 1982, with four employees.
1982Lotus Development Corporation is founded.
1982Compaq Computer Corp. is founded by Rod Canion and other Texas Instruments Incorporated engineers. Compaq is the first company to introduce a clone of the IBM PC (the Compaq Portable in 1983) and become IBMs biggest challenger in the corporate market.
1982The Commodore 64 an 8-bit computer with 64 kilobytes of memory and Commodore BASIC begins to be sold.
1982Diamond Multimedia is founded.
1982The movie Blade Runner is released June 25, 1982.
1982Veronica Belmont is born July 21, 1982.
1982The HX-20 becomes the first notebook-sized portable computer is introduced by Epson.
1982MS-DOS version 1.25 is released.
1982Apple Computer is the first personal computer manufacturer to hit the $1 billion mark for annual sales.
1982Adobe is founded.
1982Professor Scott Fahlman creates a post on bulletin board mention the idea of using a series of characters to represent a smiley face and frown face that later became known as emoticons.
1982BTC is founded.
1982Sony begins selling the first Audio CD players October 1, 1982.
1982The XT bus is introduced.
1982Rich Skrenta a 15-year old high school student creates the first known computer virus known as The Elk Cloner.
1982The first permanent artificial heart is implanted into Barney Clark December 2, 1982.
1982AutoCAD is introduced in December 1982.
1983Lotus 1-2-3, a spreadsheet program is introduced January 26, 1983.
1983Apple releases the Lisa computer, the first commercial computer with a GUI.
1983The IBM XT is first introduced on March 8, 1983.
1983The first Apple WWDC is held.
1983Compaq introduces the first 100% IBM compatible computer the “Compaq Portable” in March of 1983.
1983PC World magazine first appears on newstands March 1983.
1983John Scully becomes CEO of Apple on April 8, 1983.
1983BSD 4.2 is released and introduces pseudo terminals.
1983Zoran is founded.
1983The movie Wargames is released June 3, 1983.
1983Paul Allen leaves Microsoft.
1983Iomega introduces the Bernoulli drive.
1983The TIME magazine nominates the personal computer as the “machine of the year” December 26,1982, the first non-human ever nominated.
1983The 414s, a group of hackers are caught by the FBI.
1983Interplay is founded.
1983Novell introduces Netware.
1983The Apple IIe is introduced. The computer contains 64 kilobytes of RAM one megahertz 6502 processor and running Applesoft BASIC and sells for $1,400.
1983ARPANET standardizes TCP/IP.
1983Tandy, Epson and NEC all sell notebook computers however only the Tandys model 100 becomes popular because of its low price of $499.
1983THX is established.
1983More than 10 million computers are in use in the United States.
1983MS-DOS 2.0 was released March, 1983.
1983Alexis Ohanian is born April 24, 1983.
1983Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi is released May 25, 1983.
1983True BASIC is created and is a compiled, structured language. It doesn’t require line numbers, as the original BASIC did, and includes the advanced control structures necessary for structured programming.
1983The QIC Standard becomes the first standard in the computer history for tape drives.
1983Soviet jets shoot down a civilian Korean Air Lines Flight 007 flying from New York to Seoul and kill all 269 passengers and crew. As a result of this mistake President Ronald Regan orders the U.S. military to make Global Positioning System (GPS) available for civilian use.
1983The GNU operating system is first announced by Richard Stallman September 27, 1983.
1983IAB is founded in 1983.
1983IBM announces the PCjr (PC junior) computer November 1, 1983.
1983Microsoft Windows was announced November 10, 1983.
1983The largest BBS Exec-PC goes online November 28, 1983.
1984The AT&T company we know today officially starts, expiring the famous Bell logo January 1, 1984.
1984Docutel/Olivetti introduce the Olivetti PC, compatible with the IBM PC on January 3, 1984.
1984On January 4th Netherlands Antilles issues a 45-cent postage stamp of a computer making a newspaper.
1984The now famous Apple “1984” commercial is aired during Super Bowl XVIII January 22, 1984.
1984On January 24, 1984 the Apple Macintosh is introduced.
1984Hitachi announces it has developed the first memory chip capable of holding 1MB on January 5th.
1984IBM‘s AT computer is introduced.
1984The MUD was known as MAD becomes the first global MUD and runs across BITNET.
1984IBM PC Division (PCD) introduces its first portable computer, the IBM Portable weighing in at 30 pounds.
1984Justine Ezarik is born March 20, 1984.
1984Microsoft creates a new hardware and peripheral division March 29, 1984.
1984ESS Technologies is founded.
1984Mark Zuckerberg is born May 14, 1984.
1984The game Tetris is first released in the USSR June 6, 1984.
1984Guillemot is founded.
1984Amiga is purchased by Commodore Business Machines on August 15th.
1984Bill Gates is featured on the cover of TIME magazine.
1984ASN.1 is first defined.
1984The 3.5-inch floppy diskette is introduced and later becomes an industry standard.
1984Dell Computer is founded May 3, 1984 in Austin Texas.
1984Fox Software FoxBASE is introduced.
1984Paul Mockapetris and Jon Postel introduce DNS.
1984The now famous Apple commercial is shown during the Super Bowl, the commercial introduces the Apple Macintosh, a computer with graphical user interface instead of needing to type in commands. In six months sales of the computer reach 100,000.
1984Apple AppleTalk networking protocol is introduced.
1984Dhrystone is developed.
1984IBM develops EGA.
1984The computer Museum opens in downtown Boston.
1984Microsoft introduces MS-DOS 3.0 for the IBM PC AT and MS-DOS 3.1 for networks.
1984The Tandy 1000 personal computer is introduced and becomes the best-selling IBM-compatible computer of the year.
1984IBM introduces the Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) video card with higher resolution, more colors, and a quicker response then previous video cards.
1984University of Southern California professor Fred Cohen creates alarm when he warns the public about computer viruses in his Computer Virus – Theory and Experiments paper.
1984The term cyberspace is first used and coined by William Gibson in his book Neuromancer.
1984Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak are awarded the National Medal of Technology
1984The beginning of the greatest adventure computer gaming series is released by Sierra. Kings Quest 1: Quest for the crown is released to the public.
1984The Yellow book of CD-ROM standards is written.
1984The original Terminator movie is released October 26, 1984.
1984SETI is founded November 20, 1984.
1984Cirrus is established.
1984ISA is expanded to 16-bit capability.
1985The WELL is founded in February 1985 by Stewart Brand and Larry Brilliant.
1985On January 4th at CES, Commodore introduces the Commodore 128 PC with 8502 processor 128 kB of RAM and ROM cartridge port.
1985On January 4th at CES, Atari introduces the Atari 130XE, 130ST, 260ST, 520ST, 65XE, 65XEM, and 65XEP computers.
1985The first Internet domain name symbolics.com is registered by Symbolics, a Massachusetts computer company on March 15, 1985.
1985Charles Hamblin passes away May 14, 1985.
1985The GNU manifesto is published by Dr. Dobb’s Journal
1985Software Arts assets are sold to Lotus. Software Arts is most well known for its VisiCalc program.
1985The Amiga aka A1000 is introduced..
1985PNY Technologies is founded.
1985Dell releases its first computer, the “Turbo PC.”
1985Titus Interactive is founded.
1985Microtek introduces the world’s first 300-dpi black-and-white sheetfed scanner.
1985Quantum Computer Services is founded, this company later becomes AOL.
1985Microsoft and IBM begin collaboration on the next-generation operating system (OS/2).
1985The computer company Gateway 2000 is founded in Siox City, Iowa on September 5, 1985.
1985CAT1 wiring is introduced.
1985Intel introduces the 80386 in October.
1985Paul Brainard of Aldus Corporation introduces Pagemaker for the Macintosh, a program that lets users mix type and graphics on the same page. The combination of this software and the new Apple LaserWriter laser printer helps create the desktop publishing field.
1985The Mach Project begins at the Carnegie Mellon University.
1985IBM develops NetBEUI.
1985Microsoft Windows 1.0 is introduced in November, 1985 and is initially sold for $100.00.
1985ATI is founded.
1985Microsoft releases first version of QuickBASIC on August 18, 1985.
1985Steve Jobs quits Apple September 16, 1985.
1985Boca is established.
1985IBM introduces the Baby AT motherboard form factor.
1985Corel is founded.
1985The first C++ reference guide is published by Bjarne Stoustrup October 14, 1985.
1985The Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) is released in North America October 18, 1985.
1985Microsoft releases the first version of Microsoft Excel on the Apple Macintosh November 30, 1985.
1985Gravis is founded.
1986The Hacker Manifesto is published in Phrack (Volume One, Issue 7, Phile 3 of 10) on January 8, 1986.
1986The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is formed January 16, 1986.
1986The space shuttle Challenger explodes January 28, 1986 during take off, resulting in the death of the seven crew members.
1986Beny Alagem buys the Packard Bell name from Teledyne and starts the Packard Bell computer company.
1986The term vaporware is first used by Philip Elmer-DeWitt in a TIME magazine article.
1986Gigabyte is founded.
1986Pixar is co-founded by Steve Jobs.
1986Apple introduces the Mac Plus. The computer contained one megabyte of RAM, new keyboard that contained cursors and numeric keypad and sold for $2,600.
1986The AT or 101 key keyboard is introduced by IBM.
1986Compaq introduces the first 386-based PC compatible computer.
1986The NCSA opens.
1986Microsoft is listed on the New York Stock Exchange selling shares to the public at $21 each, making Bill Gates one of the worlds youngest billionaires.
1986More than 30 million computers are in use in the United States.
1986The domain ibm.com comes online March 19, 1986.
1986MS-DOS 3.2 was released April, 1986.
1986IBM becomes the first company to use a one megabit chip in the IBM Model 3090.
1986IMAP is developed by Stanford University.
1986Eric Thomas develops the first Listserv.
1986NSFNET is created.
1986BITNET II is created.
1986IBM PC Division (PCD) announces it’s first laptop computer, the PC Convertible, weighing 12 pounds, which is 18 pounds lighter than the earlier portable computer.
1986CD-i format is specified.
1986Tandy announces the Color Computer 3 July 30, 1986.
1986Aztech is established.
1986Avid is established.
1987Steve Wozniak ends his employment with Apple on February 6, 1987.
1987The domain apple.com comes online February 19, 1987.
1987Oak Technology is founded.
1987CompuServe introduces the GIF standard and images.
1987Robert Noyce is awarded the National Medal of Technology.
1987Microsoft purchases Forethought Incorporated. The company that developed the presentation software PowerPoint.
1987Microsoft introduces Microsoft Works.
1987Dolby AC-1 is introduced.
1987VIA Technologies is founded.
1987Microsoft and IBM release OS/2 1.0.
1987The Mac SE is introduced at $2,900.
1987Chipsets begin to be found on computer motherboards.
1987IBM introduces the PS/2 personal computer that has improved graphics, a 3.5-inch diskette drive, and proprietary bus to help prevent clone makers competition, and a bidirectional 8-bit port.
1987IBM sends clone manufacturers letters demanding retroactive licensing fees.
1987IBM develops 8514/A.
1987MS-DOS 3.3 was released April, 1987.
1987The domain cisco.com comes online May 14, 1987.
1987Microsoft acquires Forethought on June 29, 1987, the developer of what we know today as Microsoft PowerPoint.
1987IBM introduces MCA.
1987The first ARM processor computer, the Acorn Archimedes is released.
1987Microsoft Shares hits $100 per share.
1987Apogee is founded, Apogee is well known for its computer games as well as the company who first released a ‘Shareware’ game.
1987The SPARC processor is first introduced by Sun.
1987The first e-mail from China is sent to its connection in Germany September 20, 1987.
1987Star Trek: The Next Generation TV show premiers for the first time.
1987IBM introduces VGA.
1987RealTek is founded October 1987.
1987Walter Brattain passes away October 13, 1987.
1987Larry Wall introduces Perl 1.0.
1987On November 22, 1987 a Chicago PBS affiliate WTTW-11 TV broadcast gets hacked by a person wearing a Max Headroom mask.
1987Microsoft introduces Windows 2.0 in December 9, 1987.
1987Larry Wall releases the first version of Perl on December 18, 1987, version 1.0.
1987Elitegroup Computer Systems is established.
1988Edmund Berkeley passes away March 7, 1988.
1988Apple files a copyright infringement against Microsoft for Windows 2.03 and Hewlett Packard for New Wave in comparison with their Macintosh operating system.
1988About 45 million PCs are in use in the United States.
1988SNMP is introduced.
1988Robert Morris releases the Morris worm November 22, 1988, becoming one of the first major worms to infect roughly 6,000 computers over the Internet and helps establish the CERT Coordination Center.
1988First T-1 backbone is added to ARPANET.
1988Xircom is founded.
1988Bitnet and CSNET merge to create CREN.
1988Trend Micro is founded.
1988Creative Labs introduces the SoundBlaster, a sound card for the PC that contains an 11-voice FM synthesizer with text-to-speech, digitized voice input/output, a MIDI port, a joystick port and bundled software.
1988Jarkko Oikarinen develops IRC
1988EISA is announced in September as an alternative to MCA.
1988Motorola releases the 88000 processor.
1988NTP is introduced.
1988Intel 80386SX is introduced.
1988Promise is founded.
1988OSF is founded.
1988Morphing is first introduced in the movie Willow.
1988MS-DOS 4.0 was released July, 1988.
1988MS-DOS 4.01 was released November, 1988.
1988Andrei Ershov passes away December 8, 1988.
1989GriD Systems Corporation introduces the first pen-based computer.
1989PCMCIA trade association is founded.
1989ActionFront is founded.
1989The Gif89a standard is introduced.
1989ABIT is founded.
1989SQL Server is introduced.
1989Antoni Kilinski passes away May 6, 1989.
1989Fred Cohen is awarded the Information Technology Award.
1989Intel releases the 486DX processor, with more than 1 million transistors and multitasking capabilities.
1989Orange book is released by Philips and Sony.
1986Robert Morris becomes first person indicted under the 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act on July 26, 1989.
1989The first release of Microsoft Office for the Apple Mac is released on August 1, 1989.
1989William Shockley passes away August 12, 1989.
1989Poqet announces the Poqet PC the first pocket-sized MS-DOS compatible computer.
1989Asus is founded.
1989AC-2 is introduced.
1989The networking routing protocol OSPF is introduced.
1989Citrix is founded.
1989S3 Inc. is founded.

Computer History – 1990

YearEvent
1990In 1990 Tim Berners-Lee, working with Robert Cailliau at CERN propose a ‘hypertext’ system, which is the first start of the Internet as we know it today.
1990Microsoft releases Windows 3.0 a completely new version of Microsoft Windows. The version will sell more than 3 million copies in one year.
1990Microsoft exceeds $1 billion in sales and becomes the first company to do so.
1990Godwin’s Law is conceived.
1990Alan Perlis passes away February 7, 1990.
1990Electronic Frontier Foundation or EFF is founded February 16, 1990.
1990An Wang passes away march 24, 1990.
1990Hubble telescope goes into space.
1990Microsoft releases its first product for the Russian market Russian DOS 4.01.
1990The World, the first commercial Internet dial-up access provider comes online.
1990Norton sells his software business to Symantec.
1990Creative Labs introduces the SoundBlaster Pro.
1990Quarterdeck releases its memory management program QEMM386 version 5.1 which quickly becomes the fastest-selling software program in the Untied States.
1990Robert Noyce passes away June 3, 1990.
1990The Multimedia Personal Computer (MPC) standards are developed by Tandy and Microsoft.
1990Microsoft and IBM stop working together to develop operating systems.
1990Arthur Samuel passes away July 29, 1990.
1990IBM introduces XGA.
1990ARPANET replaced by NSFNET.
1990The first search engine Archie, written by Alan Emtage, Bill Heelan, and Mike Parker at McGill University in Montreal Canada is released on September 10, 1990
1990GSM standard is defined.
1990The NiMH battery begins being used for commercial use.
1990Panda Software is founded.
1990Archie, the first search engine is introduced on September 10, 1990.
1990Gopher is developed at the University of Minnesota. The program is a menu-driven search-and-retrieval tool and helps Internet users location information online.
1990The Internet Movie Database (IMDb) is launched October 17, 1990.
1990Intel releases the 80386SL processor that uses low power and found in many portable computers.
1990Tim Berners-Lee successfully sets up the first web server at info.cern.ch on December 25, 1990.

Computer History – 1991

YearEvent
1991John Bardeen passes away January 30, 1991.
1991id Software is founded February 1, 1991.
1991BSDi is founded.
1991Python is introduced.
1991HTTP/0.9 is introduced.
1991NSF opens the Internet to commercial use.
1991AMD introduces the AM386 microprocessor family in March.
1991Intel introduces the Intel 486SX chip in April in efforts to help bring a lower-cost processor to the PC market selling for $258.00.
1991Cell phone Lithium batteries begin being recalled in Japan after phone explodes and burns mans face while talking on the phone.
1991The Sega Genesis game “Zero Wing” is introduced. The phrase “All your base are belong to us” later becomes a popular saying for computer gamers and geeks.
1991Symantec releases Norton antivirus software.
1991The programming language FORTRAN 90 is created.
1991Following its decision not to develop operating systems cooperatively with IBM, Microsoft changes the name of OS/2 to Windows NT.
1991Creative Labs releases a multimedia upgrade kit that includes a CD-ROM drive, the SoundBlaster Pro sound card, a MIDI kit and a variety of software applications. The kit allows IBM compatible users to obtain all tools needed to meet the MPC standards.
1991Pretty Good Privacy more commonly known as PGP a public key used for encryption is released as Freeware by Philip Zimmerman.
1991The computer Monkey Virus is first discovered in Edmonton, Canada.
1991The domain microsoft.com comes online May 2, 1991.
1991Dolby introduces AC-3.
1991Apple introduces System 7 operating system May 13, 1991.
1991Derrick Lehmer passes away May 22, 1991.
1991The DLT tape drive is released as a very reliable, high-speed and high-capacity tape drive solution.
1991The Enhanced Parallel Port (EPP) is developed by Intel, Xircom and Zenith Data Systems.
1991TrueType a scalable font is introduced and developed by Microsoft and Apple and is used on all Apple computers and PC computers running Windows.
1991MS-DOS 5.0 was released June, 1991.
1991The London Science Museum completed the Difference Engine No 2 for the bicentennial year of Charles Babbage’s birth in June of 1991.
1991The movie Terminator 2 is released July 1, 1991.
1991The first Cybercafe opens in July 1991 in SanFrancisco .
1991The World Wide Web is launched to the public August 6, 1991. Tim Berners-Lee, a scientist at the European Partial Physics Laboratory (CERN) in Geneva, Switzerland develops the Web as a research tool.
1991Linux is introduced by Linus Torvald in August 25, 1991.
1991Apple QuickTime is introduced December 2, 1991.

Computer History – 1992

YearEvent
1992Internet Society formed.
1992Grace Hopper passes away January 1, 1992.
1992John Scully first uses the term PDA at CES while describing the Apple Newton on January 7, 1992.
1992NSFNET upgraded to T-3 backbone.
1992Microsoft introduces Windows 3.1. It sells more than 1 million copies within the first two months of its release.
1992Intel releases the 486DX2 chip March 2 with a clock doubling ability that generates higher operating speeds.
1992Microsoft acquires Fox Software in June, maker of FoxPro.
1992Allen Newell passes away July 19, 1992.
1992VESA local bus is introduced.
1992Radio Shack releases the M2500 XL/2 and M4020 SX personal computers, which are the first personal based upon the MPC specification.
1992The Reusable Alkaline battery is used for commercial use.
1992GeCAD is founded.
1992Popular Gopher tool Veronica is first released.
1992EPP version 1.7 is released.
1992IBM PCD introduces ThinkPad, the industry’s first notebook with a 10.4 inch color TFT display and TrackPoint.
1992Thrustmaster is founded.
1992TWAIN a standard interface for scanning equipment is developed by the TWAIN consortium, as it was called, consisted of representatives from Aldus, Caere, Eastman, Kodak, Hewlett Packard and Logitech.
1992Microsoft and Hewlett Packard develops ECP.
1992MIME standard is defined.
1992Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) is developed by SQL Access Group.
1992Jean-Loup Gaily and Mark Alder release gzip on October 31, 1992.
1992John Kemeny passes away December 26, 1992.

Computer History – 1993

YearEvent
1993Fifty World Wide Web servers are known to exist as of January.
1993Winsock is released January 1993.
1993President Bill Clinton puts the United States White House online with a World Wide Web page and E-mail address for the President, Vice President and first lady.
1993Microsoft releases Windows NT, Microsoft Office 4.0 and MS-DOS 6.0.
1993Intel develops PPGA.
1993Efficient Networks is established.
1993Tandy sells its computer business to AST Research.
1993Intel releases the Pentium Processor on March 22 1993. The processor is a 60 MHz processor, incorporates 3.2 million transistors and sells for $878.00.
1993The NCSA releases the Mosaic browser April 22, 1993.
1993Microsoft and IBM introduce a PnP ISA.
1993The first live streaming was done by the band Severe Tire Damage on June 24, 1993. The event was seen live in Australia and other locations over the Internet.
1993Microsoft Windows NT 3.1 was released July 27, 1993.
1993Neomagic is founded.
1993Wine begins to be developed.
1993John Scully is named president of Apple Computers.
1993IrDA is founded.
1993InterNIC is established.
1993FRISK software is founded.
1993Tim Negris, a VP at Oracle Corporation coins the term Thin client.
1993Funcom is founded.
1993WinRAR is first released.
1993PowerQuest is founded.
1993The Internet experiences massive growth.
1993Edgar F. Codd introduces the world to OLAP.
1993ADSI is developed at Bellcore
1993The Environmental Protection Agency, along with 50 computer companies, establish Energy Star guidelines that aim to decrease the amount of power a PC uses when they are idle.
1993Developed by IBM, Motorola and Apple the PowerPC processor for the Apple Power Mac is introduced and later included in the Power Mac.
1993VCD is introduced.
1993The PC game DOOM by Id Software was released December 10, 1993. Today, DOOM is thought of as a turning point for first person shooters and for computer games in general.
1993Broderbund releases the computer game Myst is released September 24, 1993 and later is honored for being one of the most popular, well known, and sold IBM compatible and Apple Macintosh title.
1993Microsoft Windows 3.11, an update to Windows 3.1 is released December 31, 1993

Computer History – 1994

YearEvent
1994Commodore computers files Bankruptcy.
1994Vice President Al Gore makes a speech where he coins the term “Information Superhighway.”
1994IBM releases OS/2 Warp.
1994CDDI is adopted into the X3-T9.5 standard.
1994VESA Local Bus 2.0 is released.
1994Intel releases the second generation of Intel Pentium processors on March 7, 1994.
1994Netscape (Mosaic Communications corporation) is found by Marc Andreesen and James H. Clark April 4, 1994.
19943DFX is founded.
1994Microsoft introduces SMS, now known as SCCM.
1994Iomega releases its Zip disk drive and diskettes.
1994Red Hat Linux is founded.
1994Microsoft releases its beta for Windows 95, code named Chicago.
1994Rasmus Lerdorf creates PHP.
1994IBM PCD introduces the IBM ThinkPad 775CD, the first notebook with an integrated CD-ROM.
1994Hotwired sells the first banner ad to AT&T on October 27, 1994 and begins running the first Internet banner ad campaign.
1994A mathematical flaw in the Intel Pentium involving the Pentium not correctly performing floating-point calculations is discovered. Later this leads to Intel millions of processors.
1994YAHOO is created in April, 1994.
1994Sunbelt Software is founded.
1994The e-mail hoax “Good Times virus” is first sent out in e-mail. The hoax claimed that an e-mail containing “Good Times” in the subject was spreading on the Internet and if opened would erase everything on the hard drive and to forward the warning to all your friends. This e-mail continues to be sent out even today.
1994MS-DOS 6.22 was released April, 1994.
1994Intel introduces the Intel 486DX4 processor.
1994ANSI approves the ATA standard May 12, 1994.
1994Bashir Rameyev passes away May 16, 1918
1994Microsoft releases Windows 3.11.
1994Geek Squad is founded June 16, 1994.
1997The Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) is established.
1994Jay Miner passes away June 20, 1994.
1994Norway’s telecom company, Telenor, starts a research project that later becomes Opera Software
1994Microsoft Windows NT 3.5 was released September 21, 1994.
1994The W3C organization is founded by Tim Berners-Lee on October 1, 1994.
1994Commodore completed its file for bankruptcy.
1994The Mach Project ends.
1994Mosaic Netscape 0.9, the first Netscape browser is officially released October 13, 1994. This browser also introduces the Internet to Cookies.
1994Perl 5.000 is released October 17, 1994.
1994Professor Thomas Nicely sends an e-mail on October 30, 1994 describing the Intel FPU bug.
1994Amazon.com domain is registered November 1, 1994.
1994WXYC (89.3 FM Chapel Hill, NC USA) becomes first traditional radio station to announce broadcasting on the Internet November 7, 1994.
1994Mosaic branches off the company Netscape November 14, 1994.
1994The W3C organization holds its first meeting December 14, 1994.
1994Netscape version 1 is released.
1994On December 24, 1994 Unisys and CompuServe announced that they expected licensing fees for software that creates and displays GIF images. This caused a lot of hysteria among developers and website owners using GIF images because of potential future GIF taxes that lead to the development of the PNG format.

Computer History – 1995

YearEvent
1995Apple allows other computer companies to clone its computer by announcing its licensed the Macintosh operating system rights to Radius on January 4.
1995IBM introduces the butterfly keyboard.
1995The dot-com boom starts.
1995Code named Utopia Microsoft Bob is introduced to the public January 5, 1995 at the CES by Bill Gates.
1995The first Wiki is created.
1995Yahoo.com domain is registered on January 18, 1995.
1995Allen Coombs passes away January 30, 1995.
1995Computer hacker Kevin Mitnick is arrested by the FBI.
1995EPoX is founded in February
1995The first VoIP software (Vocaltec) is released allowing end users to make voice calls over the Internet.
1995Apple develops FireWire.
1995O’Reilly Media sells the Global Network Navigator (“GNN”) to AOL in 1995.
1995Netscape introduces SSL in February of 1995.
1995Computer hacker Kevin Mitnick is arrested February 15, 1995.
1995Perl 5.001 is released March 13, 1995.
1995Arnold I. Dumey passes away.
1995The Opera browser version 1 is released April 1, 1995.
1995John Adam Presper “Pres” Eckert, Jr. passes away June 3, 1995.
1995John Vincent Atanasoff passes away on June 15, 1995  at the age of 91.
1995The movie ‘The Net’ with Sandra Bullock is released July 28, 1995.
1995Microsoft releases Internet Explorer 1.0 on August 16, 1995.
1995The domain ebay.com comes online August 4, 1995.
1995Netscape goes public at $28.00 a share and by the closing ends at $58.00 a share.
1995The first E3 is held in Las Vegas Nevada.
1995Intel introduces the SMBus.
1995Microsoft and General Electrics NBC television network form a partnership.
1995LiveScript is renamed to JavaScript.
1995Java is introduced.
1995The Iomega Jaz drive is introduced.
1995Microsoft Windows NT 3.51 was released May 30, 1995.
1995Microsoft Releases Windows 95, within four days the software sells more than 1 million copies.
1995PHP is publicly released June 8, 1995.
1995One of the largest and well known e-commerce sites today opens its website for the first time. Amazon.com is officially opened July of 1995.
1995DSVD is released.
1995WebTV Networks is founded.
1995EBay is founded by Pierre Omidyar.
1995Hotmail is started by Jack Smith and Sabeer Bhatia.
1995Microsoft releases Internet Explorer 2.0 on November 22, 1995 and officially starts the browser war between Netscape.
1995CD-E is introduced to the general public.
1995Ruby is released.
1995The movie Hackers is released September 15, 1995.
1995On September 20, 1995 AT&T splits into three separate publically traded companies: a systems and equipment company, a computer company, and a communications services company.
1995Microsoft releases DirectX 1.0 (4.02.0095) on September 30, 1995.
1995EDO memory is introduced.
1995Intel releases the new motherboard form factor ATX.
1995Lotus becomes a part of IBM.
1995The first computer network wiretap is authorized October 23, 1995 and leads later to the arrest of Julio Cesar Ardita.
1995CPAN is introduced October 26, 1995.
1995Intel introduces the Intel Pentium Pro in November.
1995Toy Story is released November 22, 1995 becoming the first movie that is completely computer generated.
1995HTML 2.0 standard is first published in RFC 1866 November 24, 1995.
1995Larry Page and Sergey Brin begin developing a search engine called BackRub with PageRank, an important technology that becomes an important part of Google.
1995On December 4, 1995 Sun Microsystems announced JavaScript and first releases it in Netscape 2.0B3. In the same year they also introduced Java.
1995IBM unveils Deep Blue December 5, 1995, a parallel computing system that will later play the World Chess Champion Gary Kasparov.
1995Internet search engine AltaVista launches December 15, 1995.
1995Konrad Zuse passes away December 18, 1995
1995USB standard is released.

Computer History – 1996

YearEvent
1996The domain imdb.com comes online January 5, 1996.
1996Netgear is founded January 8, 1996.
1996Intel releases the 200 MHz P6.
1996Jeffrey Lee Parson is born in 1996.
1996IPv6 is introduced.
1996Telecom Act deregulates data networks.
1996For the first time more e-mail is sent than postal mail in USA.
1996The first Java Development Kit (JDK 1.0) codenamed oak is released January 23, 1996.
1996The game Duke Nukem 3D is released January 29, 1996.
1996The domain myspace.com comes online February 22, 1996.
1996The movie Twister becomes the first featured film put on DVD March 25, 1996.
1996David Packard passes away on March 26, 1996
1996Microsoft VBScript is introduced.
1996Cuthbert Hurd passes away.
1996Angelfire is founded.
1996Alexa is introduced in April 1996.
1996Dr. Thomas Pabst starts the Tom’s Hardware website.
1996Microsoft releases DirectX 2.0a (4.03.00.1096) on June 5, 1996.
1996A domestic sheep by the name of Dolly is born and becomes the first mammal to be cloned
1996Microsoft Windows NT 4.0 was released July 29, 1996.
1996Li-polymer batteries begin being used.
1996HTTP/1.0 is specified in RFC 1945 and introduced in 1996.
1996CREN ended its support and since then the network has cease to exist.
1996What first started off as a Usenet, IMDb becomes incorporated as the Internet Movie Database, Ltd.
1996Google is first developed by Sergey Brin and Larry Page.
1996KDE is started to be developed by Matthias Ettrich
1996Macromedia purchases FutureWave and later releases Macromedia Flash 1.0.
1996The first CSS specification, CSS 1, is published by the W3C in December 1996.
1996The CDA amendment to the U.S. 1996 Telecommunications Act that went into effect on February 8, 1996. The law was intended to protect children from obscenity on the Internet, but many Internet users argued that its language was too vague and it violated the rights of free speech. Protesters against the law turned their web pages black and displayed blue ribbon icons downloaded from the Electronic Frontier Foundation. February 8, 1996 is more commonly known as “black Thursday.”
1996Cray Research merges with SGI.
1996ATA-2 is approved by ANSI.
1996IBM and Sears sell Prodigy is sold to Internet Wireless.
1996Microsoft releases Internet Explorer 3.0 on August 13, 1996.
1996AT&T introduces Worldnet.
1996Microsoft releases DirectX 3.0 (4.04.00.0068) on June 5, 1996.
1996AT&T spins off the system and technology unit, which later renames itself Lucent Technologies.
1996IBM computer Deep Blue beats chess master Garry Kasparov in two chess matches for the first time on February 2, 1996.
1996NEC merges its PC operations outside Japan with Packard Bell.
1996Sony enters the PC market with the release of VAIO.
1996Creative Labs introduces the 3D Blaster card its first graphics card to be released to the computer market.
1996Apple Stock sinks to a 10-year low of less than $18.00 a share.
1996U.S. Robotics Pilot is announced.
1996Seagate has completed the merger of Conner Peripherals.
1996Microsoft releases Windows CE.
1996Tandy announces it will either sell or close all of its 17 incredible Universe stores and 19 of its Computer City stores because of low sales and losses in revenue.
1996WebTV is introduced allowing users to browse the web from their TV July 10, 1996.
1996MSNBC makes its debut.
1996Microsoft introduces the IntelliMouse also known as a wheel mouse.
1996Acer America Corporation introduces its designer home PCs.
1996Sun Microsystems releases its line of network computers.
1996Apple announces it will purchase NeXT for $429 million on December 20, 1996 and that it will acquire Steve Jobs, Apples cofounder, as a consultant.
1996Microsoft Windows CE 1.0 is released as a portable operating system solution.
1996Bit 3 becomes part of SBS Technologies.
1996Seymour Cray passes away October 5, 1996.
1996The U.S. Postal Services releases a new stamp commemorating the 50th birthday of the ENIAC.
1996The first Tomb Raider game is released November 14, 1996.
1996United States patent 5,579,430 is granted November 26, 1996 for the digital encoding process of MP3 files.
1996K56Flex is announced in November by Lucent and Rockwell.
1996Charles Molnar passes away December 13, 1996.
1996Carl Sagen passes away December 20, 1996.
1996The ATSC approves of HDTV on December 24, 1996.

Computer History – 1997

YearEvent
1997HTTP/1.1 is specified in RFC 2616 and officially released in January 1997.
1997Mosaic development and support officially discontinued on January 7, 1997.
1997On January 7th Microsoft releases the final version of Internet Explorer 3.0 for the Apple Macintosh.
1997The PNG standard is introduced on January 10, 1997.
1997Internet2 consortium is established.
1997The world learns of Dolly, the first successfully cloned mammal February 22, 1997.
1997The domain facebook.com comes online March 28, 1997.
1997IEEE releases 802.11 (WiFi) standard.
1997The Mars Pathfinder successfully lands on Mars July 4, 1997.
1997Microsoft releases DirectX 5.0 (4.05.00.0155) on July 16, 1997.
1997Intel introduces the MMX chip.
1997The CD burning software Nero is first released.
1997Unwired Planet develops HDML.
1997Intel introduces the Slot 1 processor and slot.
1997Connectix introduces Virtual PC.
1997Yahoo! introduces Yahoo Mail.
1997ATA-3 is approved by ANSI.
1997Several computer manufactures introduce sub 1,000 computers, computers that cost less than $1,000.00.
1997AOL faces several lawsuits from subscribers who are upset about the difficulties encountered when attempting to connect to its services.
1997The dancing baby becomes one of the Internets first fads. The dancingbaby is a short 3D animation of a small baby wearing diapers dancing. It was first created by Michael Girard and later tweaked by Ron Lussier at LucasArts who released it on a CompuServe forum as chacha.avi.
1997Altavista introduces its free online translator Babel Fish.
1997A cult known as the Heaven’s Gate that earns its money from designing web sites commits a mass suicide on March 27, 1997.
1997Digital Video Discs aka Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs) first go on sale.
1997Microsoft announces plans to buy WebTV Networks in April for $425 million. The deal is later approved and completed in August.
1997CompUSA joins Dell and Gateway in selling build-to-order PC computers.
1997Intel Pentium II is introduced on May 7, 1997.
1997IBMs Deep Blue computer defeats world champion chess player Garry Kasparov May 11, 1997 in their second six-game showdown, winning the tie-breaking game in only 62 minutes.
1997Perl 5.004 is released May 15, 1997.
1997Kaspersky is founded.
1997Carsten Haitzler releases Enlightenment.
1997E ink is established.
1997CD-RW drives and media are introduced.
1997Bill Gates is now the worlds richest businessman.
1997The NASA Pathfinder Web site, which is running real-time images sent from the Pathfinder on Mars receives more than 100 million hits during its first four days, in response to the high popularity NASA sets up 25 mirror pages to handle the traffic. The site sets a new popularity record.
1997Microsoft begins working on its own search engine.
1997The TRUSTe organization is founded.
1997Microsoft saves Apple with a $150 million investment August 6, 1997.
1997The google.com domain name is registered after Sergey Brin and Larry Page decide to change the name of their BackRub search engine to Google September 15, 1997.
1997The domain craigslist.com comes online September 24, 1997.
1997Microsoft releases Internet Explorer 4.0 in September of 1997.
1997Microsoft releases Microsoft Office 97.
1997The first paywall is introduced by the Wall Street Journal.
1997Microsoft announces Windows 98.
19973Com buys U.S. Robotics for $6.6 billion making the consolidation the largest in the history of computer companies.
1997Apple releases MAC OS 8.
1997Nullsoft is founded by Justin Frankel.
1997Webroot Software is founded.
1997Microsoft invests $150 million in Apple Computers Inc. and agrees to continue creating software for Apple computers, in agreement Apple makes Microsoft Internet Explorer its browser of choice for Macintosh computers.
1997The Li-Ion battery begins being used for commercial uses.
1997The Intel Pentium II 233 MHz processor is released.
1997IEEE introduced 802.11 the wireless network standard in June 1997.
1997Advanced Graphics Port or AGP designed for Video cards. Designed by Intel is released August of 1997.
1997Microsoft Windows CE 2.x is released.
1997The Slashdot website launches.
1997Steve Jobs rejoins Apple September 16, 1997.
1997Cyrix is established.
1997Riven, the sequel to Myst is released in October 1997.
1997The domain netflix.com comes online November 10, 1997.
1997Microsoft acquires Hotmail a free e-mail service in December 1997.
1997Cyril Cleverdon passes away December 4, 1997.

Computer History – 1998

YearEvent
1998Internet weblogs begin to appear.
1998Intel releases the Celeron processor.
1998Compaq Computer purchases Digital Equipment Corporation for $9.6 billion on January 26, 1998.
1998Hearings open between Microsoft and the U.S. Department of Justice to whether Microsoft has a monopoly on the software market.
1998The DMCA is passed.
1998XML 1.0 becomes a W3C recommendation on February 8, 1998.
1998ATA-4 is approved by ANSI.
1998Lite-on is founded.
1998Blender begins being developed by NeoGeo and Not a Number Technologies in 1998.
1998eMachines is founded.
19983DNow! is introduced by AMD.
1998Sun releases the JavaStation
1998Bill Gates, is hit in the face with a cream pie.
1998During the demonstration of a pre-release copy of Windows 98 at Comdex Bill Gates and an assistant demonstrate how to install a scanner. During the demonstration Windows 98 caused an error message.
1998V.90 modem standard is announced and agreed on February 6, 1998
1998Sun Microsystems begins shipping the JavaStation in March of 1998.
1998Saehan’s MPMan becomes the first MP3 player released in Japan to the public in spring of 1998.
1998The CIH virus also known as Chernobyl virus is created and begins infecting computers and starts executing one year later on April 26, 1999 the same day as the Chernobyl accident in Ukraine on April 26, 1986.
1998Koko, a gorilla ape and student of American Sign Language holds first interspecies live Internet chat April 27, 1998.
1998SETI@Home is introduced on June 8, 1998.
1998Microsoft Windows 98 is officially released on June 25, 1998.
1998The domain computerhope.com comes online July 14, 1998.
1998Perl 5.005 is released July 22, 1998.
1998The “Solar Sunrise” attack is launched by two teenager hackers and gives them access to more than 500 military government computers.
1998Google files for incorporation in California September 4, 1998.
1998The CST is initiated by ETA.
1998AMR is released September 9, 1998
1998Reynold Johnson passes away September 15, 1998.
1998Google hires Craig Silverstein as its first employee.
1998Microsoft Internet Explorer passes Netscape in Internet browser market share for the first time as reported in a September 28, 1998 International Data Corporation report.
1998Rockstar Games is founded.
1998MySQL is introduced.
1998PayPal is founded.
1998Amazon purchases IMDb.
1998Apple introduces the iMac, the iMac helps bring Apple back on the computer maps as a very easy and friendly computer.
1998Award, well known for its computer BIOS becomes part of Phoenix, another company well known for its computer BIOS.
1998Sony introduces the Sony Memory Stick.
1998David Evans passes away October 3, 1998.
1998In October of 1998 Microsoft announced that future releases of Windows NT would no longer have the initials of NT and that the next edition would be Windows 2000.
1998Computer Hope is established in November 1, 1998.
1998Microsoft acquires the advertising company LinkExchange for $265 Million USD November 6, 1998.
1998Valve Half-Life a popular FPS game is released November 19, 1998.
1998AOL announces it will acquire Netscape Communications for an estimated value of $4.2 billion November 24, 1998.

Computer History – 1999

YearEvent
1999RIM releases the Blackberry January 19, 1999.
1999@Home buys Excite for $6.7 billion USD January 19, 1999.
1999The TiVo is introduced at the Consumer electronics show in January 1999.
1999Yahoo! buys GeoCities for $3.65 billion USD January 28, 1999.
1999The Victoria’s Secret fashion show becomes the first major webcast on the Internet attracting over 1.5 million visitors on February 5, 1999. Unfortunately not everyone was able to view the webcast because of the popularity.
1999The Intel Pentium III 500 MHz is released on February 26, 1999.
1999IEEE introduced 802.11b.
1999Microsoft releases Windows CE 3.0.
1999RDF Site Summary, the first version of RSS is created by Ramanathan Guha at Netscape in March of 1999.
1999The popular massively multiplayer role-playing game (MMORPG) EverQuest is released March 16, 1999.
1999Microsoft releases Internet Explorer 5.0 in March 18, 1999.
1999The first Wiki is introduces with WikiWikiWeb on March 25, 1999.
1999The Melissa begins infecting computers March 26, 1999 and quickly spreads around the globe over e-mail in hours and becomes one of the fastest spreading viruses in history.
1999The popular sci-fi movie Matrix is released March 31, 1999.
1999RSAC becomes part of ICRA.
1999EVGA is founded.
1999Yahoo purchases Broadcast.com for $5.7 billion April 1, 1999.
1999AMD releases the Slot A processor and slot.
1999Microsoft acquires Access software April 19, 1999.
1999The Intel Pentium III 550 MHz is released on May 17, 1999.
1999Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace is released May 19, 1999
1999National Semiconductor announced it will exit the PC processor market. June 30, 1999 – VIA Technologies announces it will acquire Cyrix from National Semiconductor.
1999Apple introduces the Apple Airport and iBook on July 21, 1999.
1999Microsoft introduces WMV with WMV 7.
1999IBM introduces the first Microdrive, the world’s physically smallest hard drive capable of storing 170MB.
1999The Intel Pentium III 600 MHz is released on August 2, 1999.
1999Sony and Philips Electronics introduce SACD.
1999AMD introduces the AMD Athlon processors August 9, 1999.
1999Pyra Labs launches the Internet service Blogger August 23, 1999.
1999The Intel Pentium III 533B and 600B MHz is released on September 27, 1999.
1999Aims Labs goes out of business.
1999Amazon agrees to buy Accept.com, Alexa Internet (Alexa.com), and Exchange.com.
1999AOL purchases Nullsoft Jun 1, 1999.
1999NVIDIA introduces the GPU.
1999802.11i is introduced with WPA encryption.
1999The Melissa e-mail virus begins spreading over the Internet causing an estimated $80 million in damage.
1999Sun Microsystems acquires StarDivision, the developers behind the StarOffice suite of software.
1999Total Entertainment Network renamed to Pogo.com.
1999David Huffman passes away October 7, 1999.
1999The Intel Pentium III Coppermine series is first introduced on October 25, 1999.
1999The D programming language starts development.
1999On December 1, 1999 the most expensive Internet domain name business.com was sold by Marc Ostrofsky for $7.5 Million The domain was later sold on July 26, 2007 again to R.H. Donnelley for $345 Million USD.
1999RIAA sues Napster December 7, 1999.
1999Jeff Bezos of Amazon.com is named Time Person of the Year December 27, 1999.
1999TIME magazine includes Philo Farnsworth in “The TIME 100: The Most Important People of the Century”.

Computer history 2000 to today

YearEvent
2000Computers continue to work and the world doesn’t come to an end on January 1, 2000 as some feared might happen because of the year 2000 bug.
2000A glitch in a computer in the Washing D.C. air traffic control causes a shutdown of air traffic across the U.S. East Coast January 6, 2000.
2000AOL acquires Time Warner and becomes AOL Time Warner
2000Microsoft Bill Gates relinquishes his title as CEO to Microsoft President Steve Ballmer on January 13, 2000.
2000The domain twitter.com comes online January 21, 2000.
2000EA releases The Sims, the best-selling PC game in history February 04, 2000.
2000CNR is introduced by Intel February 07, 2000.
2000Microsoft Windows 2000 was released February 17, 2000.
2000U.S. Judge Thomas Penfield announced today after over 2-years in the court that Microsoft be split into two companies although will remain intact until the appeals process is exhausted.
2000VeriSign agrees to acquire Network Solutions for $21 billion on March 7, 2000.
2000On March 10, 2000 NASDAQ hits its record high and marks the turning point of the dot-com boom.
2000Perl 5.6 is released March 22, 2000.
2000Microsoft Pocket PC 2000 is introduced April 19, 2000.
2000The Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act becomes effective April 21, 2000.
2000ATI introduces their Radeon product line on April 24, 2000.
2000Young Filipino students releases the ILOVEYOU e-mail virus that begins infecting computers and spreading over the Internet starting on May 4, 2000. The virus becomes one of the most costly viruses ever, estimated causing over $10 billion dollars in damage because of the steps involved in cleaning a computer after it has been infected.
2000Donald Davies passes away May 28, 2000 (age 76)
2000On June 24, 2000 U.S. President Bill Clinton makes the first ever Presidential webcast among the announcements President Bill Clinton announces a new web site that will be able to search all government resources.
2000Jack Kilby is awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.
2000ATA-5 is approved by ANSI.
2000Google announces it has indexed over one billion pages making it the Internet’s largest search engine.
2000Microsoft releases Windows ME June 19, 2000.
2000Microsoft introduces C# to the public in June 2000.
2000For the first time more than half of the households in America have Internet access on August 17, 2000 according to Nielsen.
2000AT&T announces in October it will restructure over the next two years into a family of separate publicly held companies: AT&T Wireless, AT&T Broadband, and AT&T.
2000Steve Wozniak is inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in September 2000.
2000Google launches Google AdWords with 350 customers in October of 2000.
2000Bill Shepherd, Yuri Gidzenko and Sergei Krikalev become the first to enter the International Space Station November 2, 2000 in what later becomes the longest continuously inhabited spacecraft.
2000Microsoft release DirectX 8, November 9, 2000.
2000The site egghead.com announces December 22, 2000 its site was hacked and that around 3.5 million customers credit cards were exposed.
2001Microsoft announces on January 1, 2001 Windows 95 is now a legacy item and will no longer be sold or shipped to any more customers.
2001January 02, 2001 – Intel announced that it will recall its 1.13 GHz Pentium III processors due to a glitch. Users with these processors should contact their vendors for additional information about the recall.
2001Linus Torvalds releases version 2.4 of the Linux Kernel source code on January 4th.
2001William Hewlett passes away January 12, 2001 (age 88)
2001The domain wikipedia.org comes online January 13, 2001.
2001Wikipedia is founded on January 15, 2001.
2001Herbert Simon passes away February 9, 2001 (age 85)
2001Google acquires its first public acquisition: Deaj.com’s Usenet Service on February 13, 2001, which later becomes Google groups.
2001Claude Elwood Shannon passes away on February 24, 2001 (age 85)
2001UsRobotics introduces the V.92 modem standard February 27, 2001.
2001Napster reaches over 26 million users February 2001.
2001The man who practically invented the Silicon Valley success story, Hewlett-Packard Co. co-founder William Hewlett, dies at his home, he was 87.
2001Chip-making giant Intel has agreed to acquire Xircom Inc., a maker of mobile computing gear, for about $748 million.
2001Claude Elwood Shannon, the mathematician who laid the foundation of modern information theory while working at Bell Labs in the 1940s, died on February 24, 2001. He was 85.
2001Electronic Arts purchases Pogo.com in March 2001.
2001On March 08, 2001 AOL membership surpasses 28 Million.
2001The Mir Russian Space station reenters Earth’s atmosphere March 23, 2001 and breaks up after 15-years in space.
2001The HyperTransport standard is introduced.
2001The Code Red worm begins infecting Windows computers in July 2001 with the intention of performing a DDoS attack on the White House government web page. The worm is estimated in causing $2 billion in damages and never succeeded in it’s attack.
2001Jan de Wit aka OnTheFly is convicted for the Anna Kournikova virus May 27, 2001.
2001Nathan Rochester passes away June 8, 2001 (age 82)
2001Bram Cohen introduces BitTorrent on a public message board July 2, 2001.
2001Google Image Search is introduced offering access to 250 million images in July.
2001Microsoft releases Internet Explorer 6.0 in August 27, 2001.
2001Compaq introduces the Compaq Presario line of computers August 27, 2001.
2001The CDDB is officially renamed to Gracenote.
2001Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.0 code named Cheetah and becomes available March 24, 2001.
2001March 09, McAfee releases first handheld virus protection software.
2001After 21 years of selling hard drives, Quantum sells its hard drive business to Maxtor to turn its full attention to higher-level storage products and services March 31, 2001.
2001April 20, Dell computers becomes the largest PC maker.
2001June 5, 2001, Nevada becomes the first U.S. state to vote to legalize online gambling.
2001Airlines begin to implement methods of gaining Internet access while flying.
2001Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.1 code named Puma and becomes available on September 25, 2001.
2001USB 2.0 is introduced.
2001Microsoft announces April 11, 2001 that it will no longer include Clippy with future releases of Microsoft Office.
2001July 20, 2001 – PC shipments worst since 1986, as only Dell grows.
2001Egghead files for Bankruptcy protection on August 18, 2001.
2001SATA 1.0 is introduced in August 2001.
2001AST Computers goes out of business and stops selling computers.
2001Hewlett Packard announces plans to buy Compaq on September 6, 2001.
2001Apple introduces the iPod and it goes on sell October 23, 2001.
2001On October 9, 2001 AMD announces a new branding scheme. Instead of identifying processors by their clock speed the AMD XP will bear monikers of 1800+, 1700+, 1600+ and 1500+, with each lower model number representing a lower clock speed.
2001Microsoft Windows XP home and professional editions are released October 25, 2001.
2001Microsoft Windows XP 64-Bit Edition (Version 2002) for Itanium systems is released.
2001IBM starts the Eclipse project.
2001The domain Stumbleupon.com comes online November 4, 2001.
2001Microsoft releases the original Xbox game console November 15, 2001.
2001Dean Kamen unveils the Segway December 3, 2001.
2001The “Goner” virus is first discovered December 4, 2001 and ends up costing an estimated eighty-million dollars in damage.
2001Rhapsody is released in December of 2001.
2001In December 2001 the Google search engine is now indexing three billion web documents.
2002In February 2002 Google releases its first hardware device called the Google Search Appliance.
2002Excite@Home, one of the largest ISP’s files for bankruptcy and closes its doors March, 02, 2002.
2002Gentoo is released March 31, 2002.
2002Approximately 1 billion PCs have been shipped worldwide since the mid-’70s, according to a study released by consulting firm Gartner.
2002Jan de Wit aka OnTheFly is convicted May 1, 2002 for the Anna Kournikova virus.
2002Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones is released May 16, 2002.
2002Napster files for a Chapter 11 bankruptcy on June 3, 2002.
2002WorldCom the Number 2 long-distance telephone and data service company files for bankruptcy June 21, 2002.
2002PCI Express is approved as standard.
2002Perl 5.8 is released July 18, 2002.
2002The first Trackback is used on Movable Type.
2002Edsger Dijkstra passes away August 6, 2002 (age 72)
2002Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.2 code named Jaguar and becomes available on August 23, 2002.
2002Cartoon turtle named “Dewie” introduced to help promote Internet safety and security.
2002Geoffrey Dummer passes away September 9, 2002 (age 93)
2002The first of code that would later become Mozilla Firefox is made available September 23, 2002.
2002PayPal is acquired by eBay on October 3, 2002.
2002Keith Uncapher passes away October 10, 2002 (age 80)
2002Iomega discontinues the Jaz drive.
2002Roxio acquires the Napster name and logo in a bankruptcy auction on November 25, 2002.
2002Hitachi closes deal to purchase IBM’s hard drive operation for $2.05 billion.
2002Microsoft releases DirectX 9, December 19, 2002.
2002In December 2002 Google introduces Froogle, which allows users to search for stuff to buy.
2003The Slammer worm is first released in January 2003 and becomes the fastest spreading worm in history after infecting hundreds of thousands of computers in less than three hours.
2003The space shuttle Columbia explodes fifteen minutes before it is scheduled to land on February 1, 2003, resulting in the death of all seven crew members.
2003Google acquires Blogger February 17, 2003.
2003PCMCIA announces the development of a new standard codenamed NEWCARD on February 19, 2003.
2003Roger Needham passes away March 1, 2003 (age 68)
2003Supreme court rules that sex offenders information and pictures can be posted online on March 3, 2003.
2003Intel Pentium M is introduced in March.
2003Adam Osborne passes away March 18, 2003 (age 64)
2003Puppy Linux is introduced.
2003SCO files a $1 billion USD lawsuit against IBM March 6, 2003 for allegedly devaluing its version of UNIX by contributing its intellectual property to the codebase of Linux.
2003Microsoft Windows XP 64-Bit Edition (Version 2003) for Itanium 2 systems is released on March 28, 2003.
2003Microsoft Windows Server 2003 is released March 28, 2003.
2003The first computer is infected with the Spybot worm on April 16, 2003.
2003Apple opens the iTunes store April 28, 2003.
2003Edgar Codd passes away April 18, 2003 (age 80)
2003The first D Conference is held in May.
2003The H.264 standard is completed in May 2003.
2003Internet site LinkedIn launches May 5, 2003.
2003Yahoo! acquires Overture for $1.63 billion June 14, 2003.
2003The game Second Life is released June 23, 2003.
2003Windows Mobile 2003 on June 23, 2003
2003The Safari Internet browser is released June 30, 2003.
2003The Mozilla Foundation is officially formed on July 15, 2003.
2003The Internet VoIP service Skype goes public August 29, 2003.
2003Valve introduces Steam September 12, 2003.
2003Intel announces the new BTX form factor.
2003Apple adds iTunes support for Microsoft Windows computers October 17, 2003
2003On October 24, 2003 the Sober computer worm is first discovered, a computer worm written in Visual Basic and distributed through e-mail.
2003Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.3 code named Panther October 25, 2003.
2003ImageShack comes online in November 2003.
2003Enhanced Versatile Disc (EVD) standard is announced on November 18, 2003 as a planned replacement for DVD.
2003Eugene Kleiner passes away November 20, 2003 (age 80)
2003President George W. Bush signs CAN-SPAM into law December 16, 2003, establishing the first United States’ standards for sending commercial e-mail.
2003Microsoft Windows XP Media Center Edition 2003 is released on December 18, 2003.
2003Google releases Google Print in December 2003, which later becomes Google Book Search.
2004MySpace official site is launched January 2004.
2004Google jumps into the Social Networking with the release of Orkut in January 2004.
2004The Mydoom computer virus with 250,000 infected computer begin to dos attack the SCO site February 1, 2004.
2004In February 2004 Google is now indexing six billion items, including 4.28 billion web pages and 880 million images.
2004Mark Zuckerberg launches Thefacebook February 4, 2004, which later becomes Facebook
2004WPA2 begins being used.
2004The photo sharing site Flickr is launched in March of 2004.
2004Comcast purchases TechTV March 25, 2004 to form G4TechTV.
2004Google announces Gmail on April 1, 2004. Many people take it as an April Fools joke.
2004PC Maker Gateway closes all its retail stores April 2, 2004.
2004Lindows changes it’s name to Linspire April 14, 2004.
2004Kelkea purchases the assets of MAPS.
2004The Cabir aka SymbOS/Cabir virus and fist known cell phone virus is discovered June 14, 2004 and is capable of spreading to other Symbian phones over Bluetooth.
2004The first five reported killed in South Waziristan by unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) June 18, 2004.
2004Bob Bemer passes away June 22, 2004 (age 84)
2004Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.4 code named Tiger at the WWDC on June 28, 2004.
2004Apple introduces AirPlay.
2004Intel starts the development of the BTX form factor.
2004COPPA goes into effect July 1, 2004.
2004Google acquires Picasa.
2004Google’s initial public offering (IPO) of 19,605,052 shares becomes available at $85 a share August 18, 2004.
2004Google now has more than 100 domains.
2004Bob Evans passes away September 2, 2004 (age 77)
2004Alain Glavieux passes away September 24, 2004 (age 55)
2004Microsoft Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005 is released on October 12, 2004.
2004Internet site Yelp is launched on October 13, 2004.
2004Google acquires Keyhole in October 2004, which later becomes Google Earth.
2004The first release of Ubuntu is released October 20, 2004.
2004Firefox 1.0 is first introduced on November 9, 2004.
2004Blizzard‘s World of Warcraft game, the most popular and successful MMORPG is released November 23, 2004.
2004Google now indexes 8 billion web pages.
2004IBM sells its computing division to Lenovo Group for $1.75 billion on December 08, 2004.
2004David Wheeler passes away December 13, 2004 (age 77)
2005Jeffrey Parson aka T33kid is convicted January 1, 2005 for the Blaster computer worm.
2005SBC announced it would purchase AT&T for more than $16 Billion USD January 31, 2005.
2005Google Maps is launched February 8, 2005.
2005Lenovo completes the acquisition of IBM‘s Personal Computing Division.
2005YouTube is founded and comes online February 15, 2005.
2005Google acquires Urchin in March 2005, which later becomes Google Analytics.
2005Verizon introduces FiOS.
2005Yahoo announces that it will acquire the popular photo service Flickr on March 21, 2005.
2005Windows Server Update Services (WSUS) is introduced March 22, 2005.
2005The first YouTube video entitled “Me at the zoo” is uploaded April 23, 2005 by Jawed Karim.
2005Microsoft Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is released on April 24, 2005.
2005George Dantzig passes away May 13, 2005 (Age: 91)
2005Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith is released May 19, 2005.
2005Google introduces its Personalized Homepage in May 2005, which is now known as iGoogle.
2005Apple announces it plans on switching its computer to the Intel processors June 6, 2005.
2005Eiichi Goto passes away June 12, 2005 (age 74)
2005Jack Kilby passes away June 20, 2005 (age 82)
2005Microsoft announces it’s next operating system, codenamed “Longhorn” will be named Windows Vista on July 23, 2005.
2005IBM officially announces on July 14, 2005 that all sales of OS/2 will end on December 23, 2005 and that all support from IBM for OS/2 will end on December 16, 2005.
2005MySpace is purchased by News Corporation for $580 Million US on July 18, 2005.
2005On September 12, 2005 eBay acquired Skype for approximately $2.6billion.
2005The Pandora Internet Radio service is launched August 25, 2005.
2005Google hires DARPA veteran Vint Cerf September 2005 to carry on his quest for a global open Internet.
2005Google releases Google Analytics in November 2005.
2005TeamViewer is founded.
2005Microsoft releases the Xbox 360, the second generation of their popular game console November 16, 2005.
2005Adobe completes its acquisition of Macromedia on December 3, 2005.
2005Yahoo! buys del.icio.us for $20 million December 12, 2005.
2005Maxtor is acquired by Seagate Technology December 21, 2005.
2005Forrest Parry passes away December 31, 2005 (Age 84)
2006The blu-ray is first announced and introduced at the 2006 CES on January 4, 2006.
2006On January 5, 2006 Intel introduces the Intel Core and Viiv.
2006Google introduces Picasa.
2006On March 2, 2006 Wikipedia volunteers create the article that passes the 1,000,000 article mark.
2006Google announces acquisition of Writely in March 2006, which becomes the basis for Google Docs.
2006Jack Dorsey, the founder of Twitter posts the first Twitter post “Just setting up my twttr” on his account March 21, 2006.
2006Toshiba releases the first HD DVD player in Japan on March 31, 2006.
2006Apple announces Boot Camp, which will allow users to run Windows XP on their computers April 5, 2006.
2006Google launches Google Calendar in April 2006.
2006Enid Mumford passes away April 7, 2006 (age 82)
2006Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E6320 (4M Cache, 1.86 GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) April 22, 2006.
2006Dell purchases Alienware May 8, 2006.
2006Toshiba releases the first HD DVD player in a computer computer with the introduction of the Toshiba Qosmio 35 on May 16, 2006.
2006Alan Kotok passes away May 26, 2006 (age 65)
2006Twttr, now known as Twitter is officially launched July 15, 2006.
2006Intel introduces the Intel Core 2 Duo processors with the Core 2 Duo Processor E6300 (2M Cache, 1.86 GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) July 27, 2006.
2006The Intel Core 2 Extreme is first released on July 29, 2006.
2006On August 6, 2006 MySpace announces its 106 millionth account was created.
2006Amazon.com opens AWS.
2006Skype announced that it had over 100 million registered users.
2006The Microsoft XNA tool set is released August 30, 2006.
2006Bernard Galler passes away September 4, 2006 (age 78)
2006HP announces its plans to purchase the PC maker VoodooPC September 28, 2006.
2006The GIF standard and pictures becomes officially free on October 1, 2006.
2006Google announces plans to purchase YouTube for 1.65 Billion on October 9, 2006.
2006Microsoft Internet Explorer 7 is introduced October 18, 2006.
2006Google launches its Custom Search Engine service October 23, 2006.
2006U.S. President George W. Bush signs the USA Patriot Act into law October 26, 2006, giving law enforcement reduced restrictions on searching telephone, e-mail, and other forms of communication and records.
2006Google acquires JotSpot October 31, 2006, which later becomes Google Sites.
2006Sony releases the PlayStation 3 November 11, 2006.
2006On November 14, 2006 Microsoft released its portable Zune media player.
2006Nintendo releases the Wii November 19, 2006.
2006Microsoft introduces exFAT in November 2006.
2006Microsoft releases Microsoft Windows Vista to corporations on November 30, 2006.
2006Alan F. Shugart passes away December 12, 2006 (age 76)
2006TIME magazine names “You” as the person of the year December 13, 2006, with the continued growth and success of community driven websites and content.
2006Google introduces Patent search December 13, 2006, which searches over 7 million patents.
2007AMD releases the DTX motherboard form factor in January 2007.
2007Apple announces in January 1, 2007 that it will drop computer from its name as it becomes a company who deals with more than computers.
2007Apple introduces the iPhone to the public at the January 9, 2007 Macworld Conference & Expo.
2007Douglas Ross passes away January 21, 2007 (age 78)
2007Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E4300 (2M Cache, 1.80 GHz, 800 MHz FSB) January 21, 2007.
2007Dropbox is founded.
2007Microsoft releases Microsoft Windows Vista and Office 2007 to the general public January 30, 2007.
2007Estonia becomes the first country to conduct an election over the Internet March 4, 2007
2007John Backus passes away March 17, 2007 (age 83)
2007Adobe introduces Adobe AIR on March 19, 2007.
2007Apple announces it will begin selling DRM-Free songs April 2, 2007.
2007Google announces it will be purchasing DoubleClick for $3.1 billion in cash.
2007Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E4400 (2M Cache, 2.00 GHz, 800 MHz FSB) April 22, 2007.
2007Theodore Maiman passes away May 5, 2007 (age 80)
2007Google releases Google Trends on May 22, 2007.
2007Google releases Google Street View May 25, 2007 that allows visitors of Google Maps to view of an area looks like
2007Data Robotics introduces the Drobo in June.
2007DDR3 is introduced.
2007Apple releases the Apple iPhone to the public June 29, 2007.
2007Donald Michie passes away July 7, 2007 (age 84).
2007The Apple iPhone Jailbreaking method is introduced to the public on July 10, 2007.
2007Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E4500 (2M Cache, 2.20 GHz, 800 MHz FSB) July 22, 2007.
2007The Internet domain name business.com is sold on July 26, 2007 to R.H. Donnelley for $345 Million USD.
2007David Morse passes away November 2, 2007 (age 64)
2007Google releases Android November 5, 2007.
2007Microsoft renames their SMS to SCCM in November 2007.
2007The One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) is introduced to the public November 16, 2007.
2007Amazon.com releases the first Kindle in the United States November 19, 2007.
2007Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E4600 (2M Cache, 2.40 GHz, 800 MHz FSB) October 21, 2007.
2007Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.5 code named Leopard October 26, 2007.
2007Steve Jobs is inducted into the California Hall of Fame on December 5, 2007.
2008Acer officially acquires Packard Bell January 31, 2008.
2008The HD player war comes to an end when HD DVD calls it quit, making Blu-ray the victor on February 19, 2008.
2008Microsoft release the WorldWide Telescope (WWT) program February 27, 2008.
2008AOL ends support for the Netscape Internet browser March 1, 2008.
2008Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E4700 (2M Cache, 2.60 GHz, 800 MHz FSB) March 2, 2008.
2008The Hulu website is released to the Public March 12, 2008.
2008Arthur C. Clark passes away March 19, 2008 (age 91)
2008Intel releases the Core 2 Duo E7200 (3M Cache, 2.53 GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) on April 20, 2008.
2008Arthur Walter Burks passes away May 14, 2008 (age 93)
2008Apple introduces Mac OS X 10.6 code named Snow Leopard and MobileMe at the WWDC on June 9, 2008.
2008XM and Sirius complete their merger.
2008The ATSC approves H.264 to be broadcast over television in July 2008.
2008Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E7300 (3M Cache, 2.66 GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) August 10, 2008.
2008Apple introduces its latest line of Apple iMac computers on August 28, 2008.
2008Google releases the beta version of Chrome September 2, 2008.
2008Leonard Kleinrock is awarded the National Medal of Science on September 29, 2008.
2008Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E7400 (3M Cache, 2.80 GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) October 19, 2008.
2008After completing their merger XM and Sirius begin broadcasting both services as one November 12, 2008.
2008The first Intel i7 is released to the public in November of 2008.
2008Google releases the first public version of Chrome December 11, 2008.
2009Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E7500 (3M Cache, 2.93 GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) January 18, 2009
2009Google voice, based on GrandCentral is launched March 11, 2009.
2009Microsoft Internet Explorer 8 is introduced March 19, 2009.
2009Apple removes support for AppleTalk in August 28, 2009 with its introduction of Mac OS X v10.6 that also is the first version of the Mac OS that no longer supports PowerPC processors.
2009Google announces plans to acquire reCAPATCHA.
2009Facebook overtakes MySpace in Internet traffic.
2009The Minecraft game is released.
2009Intel releases the Core2 Duo Processor E7600 (3M Cache, 3.06 GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) May 31, 2009
2009Microsoft launches the Bing search engine June 3, 2009.
2009The analog TV signal begins to be phased out as broadcasts moved to high-definition on June 12, 2009
2009CompuServe shuts down July 1, 2009.
2009Google announces the Google Chrome OS July 7, 2009.
2009After more than five years in beta, Gmail finally gets out of beta July 7, 2009.
2009On July 29, 2009 Yahoo! and Microsoft announced a 10-year search deal where the Yahoo! search would be replaced by Bing.
2009Microsoft releases Virtual PC September 19, 2009.
2009Microsoft releases MSE on September 30, 2009.
2009Microsoft releases Windows 7 October 22, 2009.
2009Amir Pnueli passes away November 2, 2009 (age 68)
2009Steve Jobs is named CEO of the decade by Fortune Magazine November 5, 2009.
2009Palm introduces WebOS.
2009Andrew Booth passes away November 29, 2009 (age 91)
2009USB 3.0 begins being released in November of 2009.
2009The first Barnes & Noble Nook is released November 30, 2009.
2009Alexander L’vovich Brudno passes away December 1, 2009 (age 91)
2009Rocket Software acquires Folio and NXT from Microsoft December 2.
2009Borje Langefors passes away December 13, 2009 (age 94)
2010Apple introduces the iPad on January 27, 2010.
2010Google Buzz is released February 9, 2010.
2010Apple announces over 10 billion tracks have been downloaded from iTunes.
2010Ed Roberts passes away April 1, 2010 (age 68).
2010Hewlett Packard purchased the Palm company, and the rights to WebOS, in April 2010.
2010Alexander (Sandy) Shafto Douglas passes away April 29, 2010 (age 89)
2010Stuxnet worm is first discovered.
2010Apple introduces the iPhone 4 on June 24, 2010.
2010Woot.com announces it has signed an agreement to be acquired by Amazon.com June 30, 2010.
2010Carl Petri passes away July 2, 2010 (age 84)
2010Amazon releases a press release July 19, 2010 mentioning it is now selling more Kindle books than hardcover books.
2010The Document Foundation releases LibreOffice September 28, 2010.
2010Intel releases the AHCI specification in October 2010.
2010Microsoft announces plans to release Windows Phone 7 October 11, 2010.
2010First all-robotic surgery performed at Montreal General Hospital October 13, 2010.
2010OpenStack is established.
2010MachinimaSports becomes the 1 billionth subscriber on YouTube October 28, 2010.
2010United States Cyber Command achieves full operational capability November 5, 2010.
2010Planet Calypso a virtual planet in the game Entropia becomes the most valuable virtual item selling for $635,000.00 USD November 12, 2010.
2010Microsoft first releases the Kinect for the Xbox 360 in November 4, 2010.
2010Maurice Wilkes passes away November 29, 2010 (age 97)
2010Mark Zuckerberg is named TIME Person of the Year 2010.
2011Intel Sandy Bridge processor is released on January 9, 2011.
2011Watson, an IBM Super computer beats the two best human Jeopardy players in a three day event with a score greater than the two human players combined on February 16, 2011.
2011Microsoft releases Internet Explorer 9 March 14, 2011.
2011Jean Bartik passes away March 23, 2011 (Age 87)
2011Microsoft announces plans on May 10, 2011 to acquire Skype for $8.5 billion in cash.
2011Microsoft introduces Office 365 June 28, 2011.
2011On June 29, 2011 Newscorp sells MySpace to Specific Media L.L.C for $35 million, around $473 Million less than it initially paid for it.
2011On August 18, 2011 Hewlett Packard announces an interest in selling its Personal Systems Group, including WebOS.
2011Steve Jobs resigns as Apple’s CEO due to health reasons on August 24, 2011.
2011Tony Sale passes away on August 28, 2011 (age 80)
2011Einar Stefferud passes away on September 22, 2011 (age 81)
2011Steve Jobs passes away on October 5, 2011 (age 56)
2011Dennis Ritchie passes away on October 12, 2011 (age 70)
2011John McCarthy passes away October 24, 2011 (Age 84)
2012Jack Tramiel passes away on April 8, 2012 (age 84)
2012Google and several other companies migrate to IPv6 on June 6, 2012.
2012Pinterest is made available to everyone August 10, 2012.

What is science?

Some viewpoints from the perspective of the philosophy of science
Sune Nordwall


If you want to understand, if you want to come to a picture of what science is, what knowledge is, it could be a good start to try to become clear about the general content of the concept. 
       Many activities are today characterized as “Science!”, while other activities just as definitely are characterized as “Pseudoscience!”, maybe without the one making the judgment always having made it clear to himself what he really means with the words he is using. Especially when you try to come closer to an understanding of what “an anthroposophically fertilized art of healing” could mean, but also “anthroposophical natural science” in general, it becomes important to become clear about the different aspects of the concept and the problems with which it is connected. 

THE GENERAL CONCEPT OF SCIENCE
Every scientific activity is characterized by two partial activities
       One is some form of observation/perception. It can take place directly, through the senses, somewhat more indirectly via some form of an, in one or another respect sense improving instrument like a microscope, a telescope or stethoscope, or even more indirectly via some detecting instrument like a Geiger counter, an electrocardiograph or an X-ray apparatus (Harré 1976).
       The other part is some form of thought activity It “surrounds” and penetrates the observation/perception; A more or less conscious thought activity takes place as an introduction to the observation. It directs the attention in a special direction, “chooses” observations, steps somewhat back during the direct moment of perception/observation, to dominate once more after the direct moment of perception/observation. 
       The thought activity distinguishes between different parts of that which is observed/perceived, gives them names or makes a more specific conceptual analysis of them, it may also quantify them and then relates them to each other, logically or mathematically.
       So far, most people who have given the problem a thought would probably agree.

A “CULTIVATED”; CUT CONCEPT OF SCIENCE
But if you want to relate the concept to the rich flora of activities that today are termed “science” and get any help to see what they have in common, you have to specify the concept a step further.
       If you look at what is today termed science, you find that only certain types of perception and certain types of conceptual formulations are permitted to use in connection with activities that in a more strict sense are characterized as scientific.
       As far as perceptions are concerned, a number of different types of instrumental perceptions dominate. Different forms of more direct sense perceptions have a more ambiguous status. If you continue to perceptions of different forms of inner, psychic states; states of the soul, you have come to a type of perception with a very dubious status, to put it mildly, as something on what to base scientific knowledge. When you come to perceptions of a more spiritual nature, you have passed outside the border surrounding those types of perceptions that are discussed. 
       On the conceptual side, spatially oriented concepts of a mechanical character dominate. They should preferably relate to something that is quantifiable and it is very satisfying if the quantified perceptions (especially when one of the not exact sciences is concerned) have been chosen in a random way, exist in a great number and have to be put through a computer program to make it possible to describe the results with the help of a mathematical model, or to make it possible to point to more definite connections (significant correlations) between factors that you otherwise don’t quite understand how the are related to each other. 
       How has this situation come about? 

THE “PARADIGM” CONCEPT
In 1962, the historian and philosopher of science, Thomas Kuhn, put forward the concept of “paradigm”, to make it possible to understand how scientists work and why, at different times in history, they have chosen a specific way to describe a phenomenon that would otherwise be difficult to understand, why they have chosen observations of certain aspects of the phenomenon and certain types of models to describe it, when other observations and models might have been just as good.
       The concept is a summarizing term for those factors that direct and put a limit to how you are permitted to work within a group of researchers and what is understood as “science” and “not-science” within that group.
       Within the theory of science in Sweden you today find a distinction being made between at least six such factors. They are: a definite picture of the world, a specific concept of what science is, a special ideal of science, a number of aesthetic ideals, a certain ethic and also a certain “self perspective“; an opinion of the role of the researcher in research (Törnebohm 1974, Wallén 1974, Lindström 1974).
       As will become more clear later, a definite concept of matteralso plays a very definite role as a paradigmatic factor.
       At first glance the concept of paradigm may seem somewhat bewildering (Mastermann in 1970 pointed to 21 senses in which Kuhn used the term), but it becomes clearer if you look at it as a way to describe how every question, problem and hypothesis that you formulate during the daily experimental research, independently of if you are conscious of it or not, is connected with a more or less explicit position in relation to basic philosophical problems. With the paradigm concept the basic philosophical problems have become visible again in science, but now related to empirical scientific research.
       It makes it possible to characterize different groups of paradigms in a broader perspective, based on how they are related to the questions that have been discussed by philosophers for a number of centuries, the basic questions concerning the nature of reality (ontology), the nature of knowledge (epistemology) and the questions of the nature of values (“practical philosophy”).
       It also makes it possible to start to try to understand and characterize the relation between the more natural-scientifically oriented medicine of today and the more spiritual-scientifically oriented art of healing that exists today as anthroposophical medicine.

In philosophyIn the theory of knowledge
Questions of knowledgeConcept/picture of science
Science ideal
Questions of valueAesthetic ideals
Ethics
Questions of realityPicture of matter
Picture of (wo-)man/”Self perspective”
World picture

PICTURE OF REALITY
The most basic orientation of a paradigm is determined by the picture of reality that comes to expression in its “world picture”. Here you find a dominant orientation towards an “idea”-pole during the whole period of Greek science, with Aristotle (left) as the all overshadowing character, all through the Middle Ages and the time of scholasticism.
     As part of a reaction against scholasticism you thereafter find a growing reorientation of the interest in the direction of the more spatial-material side of reality, that then comes to blossom with modern natural science.
       This description is modified by wefts of more “matter”-oriented paradigms (with Leucippus, Democritus (right), Strato, Epicurus and others) (Farrington 1965) during the first period and by more “idea”-oriented wefts during the latter period (with among others the whole natural-philosophy oriented scientific tradition) (Eriksson 1969), but this does not change the main impression. 

“FUNCTIONALISTS” AND “PHYSICALISTS”
With the idea-oriented, “idealistic” reality-orientation of science from its first beginning in Greece up to and on through the time of scholasticism, as also with the following “materialistic” reality-orientation of science you also find connected specific positions in relation to the questions of what matter is and what knowledge is.
       Toulmin and Goodfield (1964) distinguish between three different polarized fields in which the conceptual understanding of matter has been moving through history. They are the polarized field between a more organic and a more mechanistic conception of matter, between a more functionally and a more structurally oriented view of matter and between more “continuistic” and more atomistic opinions on the nature of matter.
       It is not difficult to see an inner connection between an organic, a functional and a “continuistically” oriented conception of matter as different expressions of a common, underlying “idealistically” oriented understanding of reality, even though the connection has not always been unambiguous in all cases (different researchers have not always been consequent). It is also those aspects that dominate all research into the nature of matter up to and partly also after the time of scholasticism. 
       It is also not difficult to see a more mechanistically, structurally and atomistically oriented conception of matter as three different expressions of an underlying, in a more proper sense “materialistically” oriented understanding and conception of reality. This conception has, as mentioned earlier, its proponents already during the time of the early Greek science, but lives on more in seclusion up to the time following the scholastic period.
       The historian of science Northrop also distinguishes, but from a somewhat different perspective, between a “functionalistic” (Aristotelian)and a “physicalistic” theory of nature as two of three basic theories of nature during the period of Greek science (ref by Törnebohm 1977). The two terms generally coincide with what here has been described as an “idealistic” and a “materialistic” view of reality. We will return to the third theory of nature later. 

VIEW OF KNOWLEDGE
With the two opinions/views of reality and the respectively connected opinions/views of matter you also find connected definite points of view on the problem of knowledge.
       The view of knowledge as a paradigmatic factor has two components (according to Törnebohm). One is a more theoretically oriented part; “view of science”. The other, termed “science ideal”, refers to that science, which within a paradigm is considered to be the best expression/reflection of what science “is” and should be.
       It is most common among non-physicists today to point to “physics” as a science ideal, whereby they normally have an inner picture of classical physics, as it looked during the first part of the 19th century (neither within the natural scientifically oriented tradition of medicine nor within the theory of science one has forgiven Planck and Einstein that they popped up during the 20th century and confused the concepts).
       To understand the more theoretical part of the problem of knowledge, it is possible to take the general concept of science as a starting point.
       Scientists pursue scientific research with among other goals that of attaining knowledge. Knowledge can be characterized as “a summarizing description of perceptions/observations in a conceptual or mathematical form”. But let us look at man(/woman) to understand the problem better.
       As human beings we have experiences. We make observations and form concepts, ideas and judgments. At our disposal we have four senses, more bound to organs localized in the head; sighthearingsmell and taste, and a fifth sense, more “spread out” over the whole body; touch

“PRIMARY” AND “SECONDARY” QUALITIES
How do people make use of the human senses within the “physicalistic” and the “functionalistic” research traditions?
       Within both traditions one distinguishes between what are termed “primary” and “secondary” qualities (Marti 1974). With the term “primary qualities” one referred to the unchangeable qualities of reality as such. The term “secondary qualities” referred to those qualities that man experiences via the senses, the changes of which could be understood as the result of changes in the relation between the unchangeable, “primary” qualities. On this point one finds agreement between the two traditions.
       But when asked what is “primary” and what is “secondary” the answers differ.
       To “the physicalists” it is the spatial qualities, passively experienced by sight, that one ascribes to the indivisible building stones of matter, the atoms”, that one experiences as most real. To them belong extension (“fullness”), form, size, position in space and the state of movement or rest. As “secondary” qualities one counted the other half of sight impressions; color, as also the other sense impressions; sound, smells, tastes and touch impressions
       The “functionalists” have an opposite orientation. They take their starting point, not in a part of the sight experience, but in the most opposite sense; the touch sense and the active experience of touch (Eld-Sandström 1971). Here they distinguish between degrees of two basic touch qualities; warmth and humidity with the extremes hot-cold and warm-dry. These four (two) basic qualities are however considered to be “secondary” in relation to the four “primary” qualities “Fire”, “Air”, “Water” and “Earth”; the elements, approximately corresponding to the four states of matter: “plasma”, “gas”, “fluid” and “solid”.
       It is interesting that one meant that each of the elements only could be experienced by a simultaneous experience from two directions; via two of the the basic secondary qualities: simultaneous dryness and warmth for “Fire”, simultaneous wetness and coldness for “Water”, warmth and humidity for “Air” and coldness and dryness for “Earth”.
       The division of the touch qualities into warm-cold and humid-dry can seem somewhat confusing against the background of the richness of the different touch experiences that one can have as an experiencing subject.
       But it is interesting, if you see it in relation to the fact that in the special touch-sense in the head; taste, one finds a differentiation into four basic types of experiences; sweet, sour, bitter and salty, in spite of the fact that the taste buds for the different tastes do not differ anatomically from one another in any obvious or principal way.
       In Chinese culture, a corresponding doctrine of the elements was developed at about the same time as it was developed in the Greek culture (6th-4th century BC).
       During the “idealistic” period of science one built the world picture on the basis of the doctrine of the elements, just as one, during the following “materialistic” period of science has put much energy into the work of building a consistent world picture, based on the idea of the atom. 

TWO SIDES OF REALITY, OR THREE?
While the experience of reality of the physicalists had its roots in a thought-experience (no one probably meant that he had seen the atoms with his own eyes during the 5th-4th century BC), the reality-experience of the functionalists had its roots in an experience of the will, the touch. While the physicalists look more at the possible static aspects of matter, the functionalists look more at the possible dynamic states of matter.
       But Northrop also characterizes a third basic theory of nature during the period of Greek science.
       To the physicalists the ultimate reality appears to be an infinite number of indivisible bodies in space. The functionalists look upon the four elements (or five, really, as one also counted with a “heavenly” element; the “quintessence”) as being the same ultimate reality.
       These two opinions now stream together in a third theory of nature, cultivated by the Pythagorean-Platonic tradition.
       Here one fuses the idea of the atom with the idea of the elements, by pointing to the five regular polyhedrons, the five “platonic” bodies, as the real, ideal Ur-atoms, each of which was understood as an exact, geometric expression of one of the elements (Plato 1971, Lossee 1972) (picture coming soon).
       If one was to point to something as “primary” qualities to the Pythagoreans-Platonists, except the Creator and the two types of triangles (right-angles with equal or unequal legs) that he used to create the platonic bodies, it should be the basic, natural numbers and the relations between the natural numbers that come to expression in the “harmonies of heaven”. As “secondary” quality the hearing experience stands out as the most basic.
       The original Pythagorean (Pythagoras above, right) tradition, with its more rational-mathematical form, had its base in the school in Croton in the south of Italy during the 6th-5th century BC Later, during the 5th-4th century BC it was developed in a more artistic-poetic direction by Plato in his school in Academeia in Athens (picture above, left, from The Academy by Raphael). 

THE SENSES, THE ELEMENTS AND THE SCIENTIFIC TRADITIONS
If you look at the picture you thereby come to, you see that it opens the way to a possible understanding of not only the sense-organism as such, but also the “roots” of the basic ontological traditions. 
       (What strikes you is that the senses display the same relation to each other as the elements with – when the four senses bound to organs in the head are concerned – sight and taste as the basic polarity and the hearing and smelling as two intermediate senses. The more “spread out” sense, touch – as a more totally encompassing (heavenly) sense – displays the same form of inner relation to taste (as the touch sense in the head), as the “Quint-essence” to “Water”.)
       In connection with half of the sight experience, the purely spatial qualities, the atom idea is developed and the “physicalism”, that constitutes one of the two pillars upon which modern “Natural science” rests.
       In connection with two willfully experiencedtouch qualitieswarmth and humidity the “element-idea” is developed and the Aristotelian functionalism, that constitutes one of the two pillars upon which modern “Spiritual science” rests.
       But both traditions also rest on a second pillar each.
       In connection with the hearing experience the Pythagorean, mathematical tradition is developed, that constitutes the second pillar, upon which modern “Natural science” rests. Out of the Pythagorean inspiration this tradition developed not only a musically based understanding of cosmos, but also the understanding of the five regular spatial “platonic” bodies as the pure mathematical expressions of the elements and of the natural numbers as “Ur-wesen”. (Rudolf Steiner (1920) from a more Aristotelian perspective points to other roots of the mathematical processes in man, that I will not discuss here).
       As a possible inner consequence of this picture you are confronted with the question of the smelling experience as the “basis” for the platonic tradition. This may at first seem absurd, but appears in a new light when you see that the olfactory (“smelling”) part of the brain is that part from which the cerebrum, which constitutes the physical basis for higher thinking in man, has developed.
       This platonic tradition constitutes the second pillar, upon which the tradition of “Spiritual science” rests. 
       The “Natural scientific tradition” of today has, in its essence, been developed in cooperation between the “atomists” and the “Pythagoreans-mathematicians“.
       The “Spiritual scientific tradition” has been developed on the basis of the “idealistic tradition” in cooperation between the “Aristotelians” and the “Platonists“.
       In this perspective you see that they appear as mirrors of each other, that in two ordered ways reflect the experiences of the the four (or five) basic experiences of reality in wo/man.
       You also see that the opposition and conflict between the “natural scientific” and the more “spiritual scientific” oriented medical traditions in a deeper sense appears as an expression of the difference between the perspectives you come to when you develop a thought-sight experience or a will-touch experience in a too one-sided way. 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MECHANISTIC WORLD PICTURE
Different scientists today often and gladly refer to the Aristotelian concept of matter as “speculative” (for example Wagner 1972) and the physicalistic concept of matter as more “scientific”.
       Northrop’s description shows how much more the functionalistic description of matter corresponds to what you experience with the senses. It is also more correct in the deeper sense of the word to use the term “speculative” to describe the atomistic concept of matter during the whole period from the early Greek, over the Alexandrine, the Arabic and the scholastic period of science, all the way up to the 19th century, as it remained a purely theoretical idea during the whole period, without the possibility of connecting it more directly to a specific empirical phenomenon.
       This only became possible at the end of a long development, where first the structural, the mathematical and the mechanistic idea had to show their fertility.
       Important milestones on the way were the “De humani corporis fabrica, libri septem”, finished in 1543 by the then 28 year old Andreas Vesalius (left), “New astronomy with commentaries on the movement of Mars” (1609) and “Epitome Astronomiae” (1618) by Kepler and “Dialogo sopra i duo massima sisterni del mundo” (Dialogue concerning the two most important world systems) (1633) by Galilei.
       But it is only, for the first time with the help of the 42 year old John Dalton that the idea of the atom comes all the way down to earth, with his book “A New System of Chemical Philosophy”, published in 1808, where he connects the idea with the fact that chemical substances join with each other in proportions of whole numbers, and to the fact that different gases expand to the same extent when heated.
       The development within biology takes a parallel course to that within chemistry and physics, with the opinion of the cell as the “atom of life” becoming more general during the first part of the 19th century, with the 29 year old Theodor Schwann being the first person to give an adequate description of the theory of cells (1839).
       The research into the atomic aspect of matter and the life processes then developed fast during the 19th century. The kinetic theory of gases, the spectral analysis of light and the invention of the “mercury-ray-pump” make it possible to investigate the phenomenon of electrical discharge in highly diluted gases between 1856 and 1859, in a way that leads to a more consciously formulated theoretical atomism (Martin 1961).
       At about the same time the 36 year old Rudolf Virchow (right, somewhat older) formulates his cellular pathology in the field of medicine (“Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologische Gewebslehre”) (1858), the theory that all diseases have their roots in pathological changes in individual cells of the diseased organism. (Later, the focus has moved some levels down to the genes as more “primary” “causes” of pathological processes and diseses.)
       Earlier an “idealistic” science, had reached a certain height during the time of scholasticism. Now, during the 19th century, a mechanistic world picture reaches its high point.
       But with the turn of the century and the first three decades of the 20th century, the situation changes in a dramatic way.

THE CONCEPT OF MATTER TODAY
The discovery of radioactivity by Becquerel in 1896, the quantum theory, formulated by Planck in 1901 and the acceptance of the general theory of relativity, formulated by Einstein in 1916 led to radical reformulations of the theory of atoms and classical physics. Among other things one had to give up the ideas of
       1. The atom as the smallest, indivisible unity of matter
       2. The unchangeable material identity of atoms and
       3. The principle that it should be possible (in theory at least) to calculate and predict exactly the behavior of single atoms.
       In their place came, among other things, the principle of complementarity, mathematically formulated by de Broglie in 1925, that says that matter in some cases can appear as a “ring” that streams through the room (space), while in other cases it is better to describe it from the aspect of a particle-model of matter, and that the way it “chooses” to appear depends upon the limit conditions, the experimental limitations, you give it for its appearance.
       Another principle is the uncertainty-principle of Heisenberg, that specifies the limit for how exactly you can describe certain pairs of aspects of atomic phenomena.
       A third important discovery has been that the principle of conservation of matter and energy is valid only as a statistical mean in elementary-particle processes, and that it is sometimes possible for “elementary particles” to “borrow” together more energy than there is really available at the moment, to “use” it for some not energy-consuming purpose, and then let the energy coming from “nowhere” disappear into “nowhere” again.
       What is left of the original idea of material atoms, as the smallest building stones of matter has become “a mathematical scheme for the calculation of the probability of observing particle-like phenomena” (Unger 1952). “That has not changed with regard also to what are pictured as sub-atomic “particles”.
       What thereby remains of the materially conceived atoms of the mechanistic world picture is, once again, “only” mathematical structures, even though in a more developed form (than that described by Plato). 

THE PROBLEM OF KNOWLEDGE IN A NEW LIGHT
The investigation of matter has thereby led to a dissolving of the concept of matter in a way that has shown the impossibility of founding the description of reality on an ultimate, unchangeable, “objective” and “material” reality. With the principle of complementary and the uncertainty relation of Heisenberg the investigating subject has taken its place, the one who formulates the questions and sets the limits for the form of the answers, as the center of the research process.
       From the perspective of the theory of knowledge one also from the 1970s finds a severe criticism of the thesis of the subjectivity of the “secondary” qualities in relation to the “primary” qualities, as described by the “physicalistic” tradition, (Hegge 1957, 1975, Naess 1974).
       The “physicalistic” way of separating spatial-“material” qualities as more “primary” in relation to the other sense qualities has thereby been shown to be untenable as an argument for the restriction of the concept of science that was described in the beginning of the article, a restriction that still continues to govern the greater part of all research activities, just as if nothing had really happened.
       Thanks to modern physics we have once more again become free to take a start in and use our own experiences, our own senses and our own thinking efforts to understand reality. The human being has, once again, become free, also in an epistemological sense, to try to understand the inner regularities in the different sense worlds and how they relate to each other.
       We are once more completely free to form concepts out of the reality in which we live as human beings and to try to develop our ability to attain knowledge, without having, in the last instance, once more to “reduce” and “found” our observations and our concepts in the seemingly “primary” qualities of a lowest level of spatial, material “parts” of matter. 

A NEW RESEARCH  IMPULSE
A first attempt to develop such a type of research in modern times was made by Goethe (1749-1832), when he developed his “Theory of colour” (published in Sweden in 1976 in a translation commented by Sällström) and when he in 1790 made an outline of a description of the metamorphosis of plants (Sw transl. 1959). That MIT Press published an American translation of Goethe’s “Theory of Color” about 1976 gives a hint that the insights of the consequences of modern physics for the theory of knowledge is now slowly spreading.
        A pioneering contribution to develop the attempt, begun by Goethe, further, was later made by Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925), at first in a number of treatises, dealing with the theory of knowledge (1886/1979, 1892/1980, 1894/1987), and later in a number of other fields of science and practical life.
       The results, in the form of the possibilities to deepen the process of acquiring knowledge that he demonstrated (1904-5/1982, 1905-8/1979, 1910/1989, 1913/1987) and later the extent of the research results that came out of it, can make an overwhelming (on pure “physicalists” for different reasons often indigestible) impression, when you start to dig into them. Beside the publication of 28 books, he held about 6 000 lectures, of which now about 3 000 have been published, most of them during the last 20 years of his life.
       During the second part of that period he also, among other things lay the foundation to and started to build up a “Free School of Spiritual Science”, with the beginnings of among other a medical section, a natural-scientific section, a mathematical-astronomical section, a pedagogical section, a section for “spoken and musical arts”, a section for the spiritual striving of youth, and later a social-scientific section, near Basel in Switzerland.
       At Goetheanum, the name that he gave to the school, and in other places a number of people have later continued working to deepen and develop further the many suggestions and new ideas with which he contributed to the development of different sciences and other fields of practical life as a result of his researches. 

AN OUTLINE OF A KNOWLEDGE OF MAN – AN ANTHROPOSOPHY
During the 85 years that have passed (in 2010) since his death, it has still only been possible to start scratching on the surface of the body of research results, ideas and practical suggestions that he left behind. It will probably take a long time before it becomes possible to survey the extent of the contribution that he left behind.
       The core of “anthroposophy”, the name that he gave to his contribution, is its picture of wo/man. With the development of our consciousness as a starting point he describes history. Out of our relation as human beings to the world of minerals, of plants, of animals and out of that which is specifically human in us, he describes the common development of wo/man, nature and the earth, as it appears to a meditatively developed research process (Steiner 1910/89 and other works).
       Through all fields of “anthroposophy”, wo/man – the development and individuation process that we have gone through – runs as a red thread, a process that has now made it possible for us to start standing on our own legs in relation to our origin, and thereby also start taking over the responsibility for our own development, both as humanity and as individual humans. 

AN EVALUATION
Today we have the possibility as emerging free beings to look back at history without prejudice to see what we have achieved in the form of an understanding of the reality surrounding us and of ourselves.
       After a long period of “idealistically” oriented research into reality, we have now for a number of centuries gone through a fascinating and interesting period of research into reality from a “materialistically” oriented perspective. The former period has made it possible to understand more consciously certain general, deep laws of nature and of wo/man. The latter has, among other things, in a decisive way contributed to the possibility for wo/man to develop a clear and independent thinking. But this second period has now also come to a form of an end.
       Today we have the possibility to look through the one-sided way of working during both these periods. “Anthroposophy” is the beginning of an attempt to develop an understanding of reality once more starting from a clear, wake, fact-oriented consciousness of that which is observable with the senses and developing the thoughts that arise out of what you observe.
       The results is a renewed orientation in a “functionalistic” direction, but now against the background of the extensive fruits of a long and fascinating period of “physicalistically” oriented research. 
       A gigantic amount of work now remains to be done, to not only survive the maturity-crisis that we now pass through and must pass through as humanity during the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the next, but also let the insights that have come out of the “matter-scientific” research of the last centuries fertilize and be fertilized by the insights that have and can come out of a “spiritual-scientifically” oriented research.
       “Anthroposophy”, as a first attempt towards a possible synthesis of the two traditions, has taken its first stuttering steps. An “anthroposophic” art of healing, as a first step towards a future, widened, more factually human art of healing, is also beginning to take form. To that art of healing this article has wanted to be a contribution. 

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